Sermon and Worship Resources (2024)

(1) Son of Omri, king of Israel, whom he succeeded, reigning for twenty-two years (871852 BC). The summary of Ahab’s reign in 1Kings 16:29–33 serves as a prologue to the Elijah narrative, identifying the issue that Elijah addressed: Ahab’s patronage of Baal at the instigation of his foreign wife, Jezebel. Ahab is condemned by the writer of 1Kings in superlative terms (16:33).

(2)Son of Kolaiah, Ahab was a false prophet whom Jeremiah condemned in his letter to the exiles (Jer. 29:21–23).

The English word “angel” refers to nonhuman spirits, usually good. The biblical words usually translated “angel” mean “messenger” and can refer to one sent by God or by human beings. A messenger must be utterly loyal, reliable, and able to act confidentially (Prov. 13:17). The messenger speaks and acts in the name of the sender (Gen. 24).

Messengers sent by God are not always angels. Yahweh’s prophets were his messengers (Hag. 1:13), as were priests (Mal. 2:7).

Located in the biblical Negev, this city was significant for the patriarchs and continued as the recognized southern boundary of the political entity of Israel. Because the Negev receives between eight and twelve inches of rainfall per year, water is a critical issue.

Beersheba means both “well of the seven” and “well of the oath.” The encounters between Abraham and the Philistine leaders Abimelek and Phicol had to do with water rights (Gen. 21:2232). When Abimelek’s servants seized a well that Abraham had dug, he, in order to demonstrate that his own claim on the well was valid, offered seven lambs to Abimelek, and the two made a treaty. The narrative incorporates both meanings of sheba’. Although Abraham was a formidable presence in the region, it is evident that it was under Philistine control at this time (Gen. 21:33–34). Abraham remained there for a long time, returning to Beersheba after the test on Mount Moriah (Gen. 22:19). These same elements and names recur in the interactions between Isaac and the Philistine leaders (Gen. 26:12–33). Beersheba continued to be a center for the seminomadic patriarchs. Isaac lived there with his family; after Jacob tricked Esau out of Isaac’s blessing, Jacob left Beersheba and headed for Harran (Gen. 28:10). Near the end of his life, as he set out for Egypt to rejoin Joseph, Jacob stopped in Beersheba to offer sacrifices to God (Gen. 46:1–5). Much later, as Elijah fled from Jezebel and made his way back to Horeb, the source of the covenant, he stopped at Beersheba (1Kings 19:1–8).

From the period of the judges until the end of the united monarchy, the expression “from Dan to Beersheba” indicated the extent from north to south of Israel (e.g., Judg. 20:1; 1Sam. 3:23; 2Sam. 3:10). After the secession and demise of the northern kingdom, Beersheba still indicated the southern boundary (e.g., 2Chron. 19:4; 30:5). In the postexilic period the people of Judah inhabited territory from Beersheba to the Hinnom Valley (Neh. 11:27–30).

Generally made of grain, this staple of foods has been known to be in existence since prehistoric days, being mentioned in the oldest literatures of humanity. Though usually made of wheat, it can be made of any grain and also some kinds of beans or lentils.

To make bread, grain must be ground into flour, mixed with salt and water, kneaded into a dough, and baked. Most breads included a leaven to add substance. As a food staple, it became a symbol of hospitality (Neh. 13:12; Matt. 14:15–21) and community as people ate together (Acts 2:42). Bread was considered a gift from God, so it was treated with special deference. Unleavened bread was required during Passover feasts and in most occasions related to the worship of God. The “bread of the Presence” (KJV: “shewbread”), representing the twelve tribes of Israel in the temple, was made of unleavened bread (Exod. 25:30) with special flour and was carefully eaten by the priests.

Jesus used bread in the Lord’s Prayer to represent asking God to meet our basic needs (Matt. 5:11), and he called himself the “bread of life” to show that he is the one who “gives life to the world,” our ultimate sustenance (John 6:33–35). During this exchange with the Jews about the bread of life, Jesus foreshadows what takes place at the Last Supper with his disciples, suggesting that believers must “eat [his] flesh” (represented by bread) and “drink [his] blood” (represented by wine) (John 6:53–59; cf. Luke 22:19). Additionally, bread was used symbolically to represent those things that were present in daily life (Pss. 127:2; 80:5; Prov. 4:17; 20:17).

A broad designation for certain regions in Israel, typically rocky, although also plains, with little rainfall. These areas generally are uninhabited, and most often “wilderness” refers to specific regions surrounding inhabited Israel. A fair amount of Scripture’s focus with respect to the wilderness concerns Israel’s forty-year period of wandering in the wilderness after the exodus (see also Wilderness Wandering).

More specifically, the geographical locations designated “wilderness” fall into four basic categories: the Negev (south), Transjordan (east), Judean (eastern slope of Judean mountains), and Sinai (southwest).

The Negev makes up a fair amount of Israel’s southern kingdom, Judah. It is very rocky and also includes plateaus and wadis, which are dry riverbeds that can bloom after rains. Its most important city is Beersheba (see Gen. 21:14, 22 34), which often designates Israel’s southernmost border, as in the expression “from Dan to Beersheba” (e.g., 2Sam. 17:11).

Transjordan pertains to the area east of the Jordan River, the area through which the Israelites had to pass before crossing the Jordan on their way from Mount Sinai to Canaan. (Israel was denied direct passage to Canaan by the Edomites and Amorites [see Num. 20:14–21; 21:21–26].) Even though this region lay outside the promised land of Canaan, it was settled by the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh after they had fulfilled God’s command to fight alongside the other tribes in conquering Canaan (Num. 32:1–42; Josh. 13:8; 22:1–34).

The Judean Desert is located on the eastern slopes of the Judean mountains, toward the Dead Sea. David fled there for refuge from Saul (1Sam. 21–23). It was also in this area that Jesus was tempted (Luke 4:1–13).

The Sinai Desert is a large peninsula, with the modern-day Gulf of Suez to the west and the Gulf of Aqaba to the east. In the ancient Near Eastern world, both bodies of water often were referred to as the “Red Sea,” which is the larger sea to the south. In addition to the region traditionally believed to contain the location of Mount Sinai (its exact location is unknown), the Sinai Desert is further subdivided into other areas known to readers of the OT: Desert of Zin (northeast, contains Kadesh Barnea), Desert of Shur (northwest, near Egypt), Desert of Paran (central).

Wilderness is commonly mentioned in the Bible, and although it certainly can have neutral connotations (i.e., simply describing a location), the uninhabited places often entail both positive (e.g., as a place of solitude) and negative (e.g., as a place of wrath) connotations, both in their actual geological properties and as metaphors. The very rugged and uninhabited nature of the wilderness easily lent itself to being a place of death (e.g., Deut. 8:15; Ps. 107:4–5; Jer. 2:6). It was also a place associated with Israel’s rebellions and struggles with other nations. Upon leaving Egypt, Israel spent forty years wandering the wilderness before entering Canaan, encountering numerous military conflicts along the way. This forty-year period was occasioned by a mass rebellion (Num. 14), hence casting a necessarily dark cloud over that entire period, and no doubt firming up subsequent negative connotations of “wilderness.” Similarly, “wilderness” connotes notions of exile from Israel, as seen in the ritual of the scapegoat (lit., “goat of removal” [see Lev. 16]). On the Day of Atonement, one goat was sacrificed to atone for the people’s sin, and another was sent off, likewise to atone for sin. The scapegoat was released into the desert, where it would encounter certain death, either by succumbing to the climate or through wild animals.

On the other hand, it is precisely in this uninhabited land that God also showed his faithfulness to his people, despite their prolonged punishment. He miraculously supplied bread (manna) and meat (quail) (Exod. 16; Num. 11), as well as water (Exod. 15:22–27; 17:1–7; Num. 20:1–13; 21:16–20). God’s care for Israel is amply summarized in Deut. 1:30–31: “The Lord your God, who is going before you, will fight for you, as he did for you in Egypt, before your very eyes, and in the wilderness. There you saw how the Lord your God carried you, as a father carries his son, all the way you went until you reached this place.”

The harsh realities of the wilderness also made it an ideal place to seek sanctuary and protection. David fled from Saul to the wilderness, the Desert of Ziph (1Sam. 23:14; 26:2–3; cf. Ps. 55:7). Similarly, Jeremiah sought a retreat in the desert from sinful Israel (Jer. 9:2).

Related somewhat to this last point is Jesus’ own attitude toward the wilderness. It was there that he retreated when he could no longer move about publicly (John 11:54). John the Baptist came from the wilderness announcing Jesus’ ministry (Matt. 3:1–3; Mark 1:2–4; Luke 3:2–6; John 1:23; cf. Isa. 40:3–5). It was also in the desert that Jesus went to be tempted but also overcame that temptation.

A prophet raised up by God during the reign of Ahab of Israel (ninth century BC) in order to counter fast-rising idolatry fueled by the king and his foreign-born wife, Jezebel.

False worship at this time focused on Baal, a major Canaanite deity who was the god of fertility, having power over dew, rain, lightning, and thunder. Thus, as people turned to Baal for these life-giving forces, God shut up the heavens so there would be no rain in Israel (1Kings 17:1). God also at this time sent Elijah the Tishbite to confront the king.

Through the performance of miraculous acts, Elijah demonstrated that God was with him. The first such act was multiplying the food supplies of a widow who provided him with food. Even more dramatically, he prayed for the woman’s son when the child died, and the dead boy began to breathe again (1Kings 17:1724).

Elijah’s most dramatic moment came when he confronted Ahab and his many Baal prophets on Mount Carmel (1Kings 18). Yahweh fought Baal on the latter’s terms. The object was whether Yahweh or Baal could throw fire from heaven to light the altar fire. Baal was purportedly a specialist at throwing fire (lightning), and his prophets went first. However, because Baal did not really exist, they failed. When Yahweh’s turn came, Elijah increased the stakes by pouring water on the wood. Yahweh, the one true God, threw fire from heaven, which burned the sacrifice, wood, stones, and dirt, and even dried up the water. Soon thereafter, God opened up the skies so that it rained again. Even so, Ahab and then his son Ahaziah (2Kings 1) continued to worship Baal.

Elijah was a devoted servant of Yahweh. Before Elijah passed from this life, God introduced him to his successor, Elisha. When the end came, he did not die but rather was caught up to heaven (2Kings 2:1–18)—only the second person reported to leave this life without dying (cf. Enoch in Gen. 5:21–24).

Toward the end of the OT period, the prophet Malachi announced the coming day of the Lord (Mal. 4:5–6). As a precursor to that day, God would send the prophet Elijah as a forerunner. Some people thought that Jesus was Elijah (Matt. 16:14; Mark 6:15; 8:28; Luke 9:8, 19), but Jesus is the one who ushers in the kingdom of God. John the Baptist was his forerunner, and so it was he who is rightly associated with Elijah (Matt. 11:13–14). Indeed, his wilderness lifestyle and ministry echoed those of Elijah. At the Mount of Transfiguration, Elijah appeared to Jesus along with Moses; these two wilderness figures represented the prophets and the law (Matt. 17:1–13; Mark 9:2–13; Luke 9:28–36).

The mountain where Moses met with God and received the law and instructions for building the tabernacle. It is important to note that Sinai is sometimes referred to as Horeb.

The exact location of the mountain cannot be determined with certainty. Complicating matters is the fact that the desert and the peninsula on which the mountains sit are both called “Sinai.” Furthermore, although some have speculated that the mountain must be a volcano, given the description of smoke coming from the mountain and the earthquakes (Exod. 19:16, 18), this suggestion is of little specific help because many of the mountains in this region at one time were active volcanoes. Several locations for the mountain have been suggested.

The foreign-born wife of Ahab, a ninth-century BC king of Israel. Jezebel was the daughter of King Ethbaal of Sidon. She was a devout worshiper of the god Baal, whose religion she promoted in Israel after marrying Ahab. Many people were persuaded to add the worship of Baal to the worship of Yahweh, the true God of Israel. God raised up two prophets during this time, Elijah and Elisha, who resisted the encroachment of her false religion.

Jezebel was evil and a worshiper of false gods. In the NT she became an exemplar of wickedness. Revelation 2:20 associates a woman prophet in Thyatira with Jezebel because she was leading the people astray by her teaching.

A prophet is a messenger of God, a person to whom God entrusts his message to an individual or to a nation. Indeed, the last book in the OT is named “Malachi,” which means “my messenger.” Isaiah heard God ask, “Whom shall I send?” and he cried out, “Send me!” (Isa. 6:8). A good template for understanding the phenomenon is Moses and Aaron. Moses was to tell Aaron what to say, and Aaron would say it. “Then the Lord said to Moses, ‘See, I have made you like God to Pharaoh, and your brother Aaron will be your prophet’” (Exod. 7:1).

In the NT period there were a number of prophets. John the Baptist could point to Jesus and proclaim him to be the Lamb of God, who takes away the sins of the world (John 1:29). Agabus the prophet predicted a famine and, later, Paul’s arrest (Acts 11:28; 21:1011).

Paul lists “gifts of the Spirit” (1Cor. 12:4–11), including prophecy and various phenomena reminiscent of the OT prophets’ ecstatic state. Paul warns the Corinthians not to overdo this sort of thing and so to be mature (1Cor. 14:19–20). Near the end of his life, in one of his last letters, he speaks of prophecy as normative in the church, particularly in establishing an authoritative body of elders to rule and especially to preach the gospel (1Tim. 1:18; 4:14). Peter draws a connection between the ministry of the OT prophets and the proclamation of the gospel of Jesus Christ (1Pet. 1:10–12). Evangelism seems to be the normative mode for prophecy today: forthtelling by calling people to turn from their sins to Jesus, and foretelling by speaking of his return and the final judgment.

Thus, all Christians hold the office of prophet, even if they never participate in the ecstatic state experienced by the Corinthians. The greatness of a prophet is in how clearly the prophet points to Jesus. John the Baptist was the greatest of the OT prophets by that measure, but any Christian on this side of the cross and resurrection can proclaim the gospel even more clearly. Thus, the prophetic ministry of any Christian is greater than John’s (Matt. 11:11).

Five prophetesses are mentioned in the OT: Miriam (Exod. 15:20), Deborah (Judg. 4–5), Huldah (2Kings 22:14–20; 2Chron. 34:22–28), Isaiah’s wife (Isa. 8:3), and Noadiah (Neh. 6:14).

Similarly in the NT, Peter recognizes God’s promise through Joel being fulfilled in the gift of prophetic speech to women as well as men at Pentecost (Acts 2:18); and Paul, acknowledging that women prophesy publicly in the congregation, is concerned only with the manner of their doing so (1Cor. 11:5). The prophetess Anna proclaims the baby Jesus as the Messiah (Luke 2:36–38), Luke reports that the four unmarried daughters of Philip the evangelist also prophesy (Acts 21:8–9). The only false prophetess in the NT is the apocalyptic figure of Jezebel in Rev. 2:20.

There are numerous relationships in the OT that could be characterized as following a servant-master model. These included service to the monarchy (2Sam. 9:2), within households (Gen. 16:8), in the temple (1Sam. 2:15), or to God himself (Judg. 2:8). We also see extensive slavery laws in passages such as Exod. 21:111; Lev. 25:39–55; Deut. 15:12–18. The slavery laws were concerned with the proper treatment of Hebrew slaves and included guidelines for their eventual release and freedom. For example, Hebrew slaves who had sold themselves to others were to serve for a period of six years. On the seventh year, known also as the Sabbath Year, they were to be released. Once released, they were not to be sent away empty-handed, but rather were to be supported from the owner’s “threshing floor” and “winepress.” Slaves also had certain rights that gave them special privileges and protection from their masters. Captured slaves, for example, were allowed rest on the Sabbath (Exod. 20:10) and during special holidays (Deut. 16:11, 14). They could also be freed if their master permanently hurt or crippled them (Exod. 21:26–27). Also, severe punishment was imposed on a person who beat a slave to death (Exod. 21:20–21).

Slavery was very common in the first century AD, and there were many different kinds of slaves. For example, slaves might live in an extended household (oikos) in which they were born, or they might choose to sell themselves into this situation (1Pet. 2:18–25). Although slavery was a significant part of society in the first century AD, we never see Jesus or the apostles encourage slavery. Instead, both Paul and Peter encouraged godly character and obedience for slaves within this system (Eph. 6:5–8; Col. 3:22–25; 1Tim. 6:1–2; Philemon; 1Pet. 2:18–21). Likewise, masters were encouraged to be kind and fair to their slaves (Eph. 6:9; Col. 4:1). Later in the NT, slave trading was condemned by the apostle Paul as contrary to “sound doctrine” and “the gospel concerning the glory of the blessed God” (1Tim. 1:10–11).

Jesus embodied the idea of a servant in word and deed. He fulfilled the role of the “Servant of the Lord,” the Suffering Servant predicted by the prophet Isaiah (Isa. 42:1–4; 50:4–9; 52:13–53:12). He also took on the role of a servant in the Gospels, identifying himself as the Son of Man who came to serve (Mark 10:45) and washing the disciples’ feet (John 13:4–5). Paul says that in the incarnation Jesus took on “the very nature of a servant” (Phil. 2:7).

The special relationship between Jesus and his followers is captured in the servant-master language of the NT Epistles, especially in Paul’s letters (Rom. 1:1; Phil. 1:1; Titus 1:1). This language focuses not so much on the societal status of these servants as on the allegiance and honor owed to Christ Jesus.

Water is mentioned extensively in the Bible due to its prevalence in creation and its association with life and purity. The cosmic waters of Gen. 1 are held back by the sky (Gen. 1:67; cf. Pss. 104:6, 13; 148:4). God is enthroned on these waters in his cosmic temple (Pss. 29:10; 104:3, 13; cf. Gen. 1:2; Ps. 78:69; Isa. 66:1). These same waters were released in the time of Noah (Gen. 7:10–12; Ps. 104:7–9).

Water is also an agent of life and fertility and is therefore associated with the presence of God. Both God himself and his temple are described as the source of life-giving water (Jer. 2:13; 17:13; Joel 3:18; cf. Isa. 12:2–3). Ezekiel envisions this water flowing from beneath the temple and streaming down into the Dead Sea, where it brings life and fecundity (Ezek. 47:1–12; cf. Zech. 14:8). The book of Revelation, employing the same image, describes “the river of the water of life, as clear as crystal, flowing from the throne of God and of the Lamb” (22:1). This imagery is also illustrated in archaeological remains associated with temples. Cisterns are attested beneath the Dome of the Rock (presumably the location of the Jerusalem temple) and beneath the Judahite temple at Arad. Other temples, such as the Israelite high place at Tel Dan, are located close to freshwater springs. The Gihon spring in the City of David may also be associated with the Jerusalem temple (Ps. 46:4; cf. Gen. 2:13).

This OT imagery forms the background for Jesus’ teaching regarding eternal life in the writings of the apostle John. Jesus claims to be the source of living water, and he offers it freely to everyone who thirsts (John 4:10–15; 7:37; Rev. 21:6; 22:17; cf. Rev. 7:17). This water, which produces “a spring of water welling up to eternal life” (John 4:14), is the work of the Holy Spirit in the believer (John 7:38–39).

Water is also described in the Bible as an agent of cleansing. It is extensively employed in purification rituals in the OT. In the NT, the ritual of water baptism signifies the purity and new life of the believer (Matt. 3:11, 16; Mark 1:8–10; Luke 3:16; John 1:26, 31–33; 3:23; Acts 1:5; 8:36–39; 10:47; 11:16; 1Pet. 3:20–21; cf. Eph. 5:26; Heb. 10:22).

Finally, the NT also reveals Jesus as the Lord of water. He walks on water (Matt. 14:28–29; John 6:19), turns water into wine (John 2:7–9; 4:46), and controls water creatures (Matt. 17:27; John 21:6). Most important, Jesus commands “the winds and the water, and they obey him” (Luke 8:25; cf. Ps. 29:3).

The English word “angel” refers to nonhumanspirits, usually good. The biblical words usually translated “angel”(Heb. malak; Gk. angelos) mean “messenger” and can referto one sent by God or by human beings. A messenger must be utterlyloyal, reliable, and able to act confidentially (Prov. 13:17). Themessenger speaks and acts in the name of the sender (Gen. 24).

Messengerssent by God are not always angels. Yahweh’s prophets were hismessengers (Hag. 1:13), as were priests (Mal. 2:7).

OldTestament

Thereare few references to angels (plural) in the OT. In heaven theypraise God and worship him (Pss. 103:20; 148:2). God sends his angelsto accompany his people (Gen. 28:12; 32:1) and to protect them(Ps. 91:11) and once sent them to destroy Egypt (Ps. 78:49).

Anangel in human form was referred to as a “man of God”(Judg. 13:6), the same term used for a prophet (cf. 1 Kings13:14).

Angelsevoked fear and wonder. They are described as shining (Matt. 28:3;Acts 12:7). When humans bowed to worship angels, they were rebukedbecause God alone is to be worshiped (Rev. 22:8–9).

Godhimself, not being a part of the created order, cannot be seen. Inorder to communicate with people, he sometimes speaks through a formcalled “the angel of the Lord.” The angel of the Lordappeared to Abraham in human form (Gen. 18; cf. Josh. 5:13–15),but to Moses as fire (Exod. 3:2). When he spoke, it was God speaking(Exod. 3:4, 14). He guided and guarded Israel out of Egypt andthrough the desert (23:20–23). He appeared within the pillar offire or cloud (13:21–22; 14:19), being seen through the pillaron occasion as “the glory of the Lord” (16:7–10;24:16–17; 33:9–11; 40:17, 34–38), and later as hefilled Solomon’s temple (1 Kings 8:11).

Ina series of visions of the glory of the Lord (Ps. 18:7–15;Ezek. 1; Rev. 4:7) we encounter four “living creatures”called “cherubim” (Ezek. 10:20–22) that are notexplicitly identified as angels and whose visible appearance is parthuman and part animal. Their form was placed on the cover of the Arkof the Covenant (Exod. 25:18) and embroidered on the curtains of thetabernacle (26:1). Cherubim guarded the eastern entry into the gardenof Eden (Gen. 3:24), implying that Eden, the place where God appearedon earth, was now excluded from the area allocated to humankind.

InIsaiah’s vision of God’s glory, he describes, literally,“flaming ones” (Heb. seraphim) located above God andcrying, “Holy, holy, holy” (Isa. 6:1–7). All weknow of them is that they had six wings, whereas the cherubim hadfour (Ezek. 1:11). It may be that seraphim are not a separate classof angels but simply a description appropriate to all angels, sinceelsewhere we are told (Ps. 104:4; Heb. 1:7) that God’s angelsare “flames of fire.”

Angelsare also called “holy ones” (Deut. 33:2) and “spirits”or “winds” (Zech. 6:5; cf. Ps. 104:4). Since God’speople are also called “holy ones” (Dan. 7:27; NIV: “holypeople”), it may be difficult to know if a given reference isto angels or people (e.g., Deut. 33:3).

Angelsare first named in the book of Daniel: Gabriel, whose name means“hero of God” (8:16; 9:21; [cf. Luke 1:19, 26]); Michael,whose name means “who is like God?” (10:13, 21; 12:1 [cf.Jude 9; Rev. 12:7]) and who is also called “one of the chiefprinces,” “your prince,” and “the greatprince.” The Hebrew word for “prince” (sar) alsomeans “commander” (e.g., 1 Sam. 17:55) and thusmight refer to Michael’s standing as a commander of God’sangelic armies (cf. Jude 9, where he is called “archangel”).During the intertestamental period, texts outside the Scriptures tendto give more attention to angels in elaborate stories, introducingsuch names as Raphael and Uriel (see Tobit, 1 Enoch, etc.).

IntertestamentalPeriod and New Testament

Duringthe intertestamental period some Jews came to think that angelsranked higher than humans, since the Greeks asserted that anythingphysical was evil and only purely spiritual beings could be holy.Increasingly detailed stories about angels served to distance Godfrom the evils of physical reality. The myth of the fall of theangels arose during this time through a series of writings claimingto come from the pen of Enoch (1 Enoch), stimulating a largenumber of other writings. Some people even went so far as to worshipangels (Col. 2:18).

Somereferences to angels are difficult to understand. In Matt. 18:10Jesus warns people to treat children well because their angels haveconstant access to God. The simplest meaning is that angelicmessengers will tell God what has happened with these children.Rhoda’s reference to Peter’s “angel” as if itwere his ghost probably reflects a local superstition (Acts 12:15) ora sectarian Jewish belief that the righteous become angels when theydie. Paul’s comment that a woman should have “authorityover her own head” (i.e., her head covered) “because ofthe angels” (1 Cor. 11:10) remains something of a puzzle,and his unique reference to the language of angels appears to behyperbole (1 Cor. 13:1).

Paulwarns us that Satan can appear as “an angel of light,”meaning that he would work through one who claimed to bring a messagein accord with the gospel (2 Cor. 11:14). The devil has his“angels/messengers” (Matt. 25:41), although we knowlittle about them.

Angelsdo not marry, reproduce, or die (Matt. 22:30; Mark 12:25; Luke20:35–36). The NT affirms that angels rank below God’speople and serve them (1 Cor. 6:3; Heb.1:4–14; 2:5, 16),as they did Jesus (Matt. 4:11; Mark 1:13; cf. 1 Kings 19:5–7;Luke 22:43). Angels have limited understanding or knowledge of God’splans and purposes (1 Pet. 1:12), although they reveal God’sword (Rev. 1:1). They bring the spirits of God’s people toheaven when they die (Luke 16:22) and implement God’s judgmenton the last day (Matt. 13:39, 49; 16:27; 24:31; 25:31; Mark 8:38;13:27; Luke 9:26; 2 Thess. 1:7; Rev. 14:15–19). Theyrejoice when a sinner repents (Luke 15:10). Christians already standin the greater assembly that includes the angels (Heb.12:22).Eventually, Jesus will welcome his people into the heavenly courtroomin the presence of the angels (Luke 12:8–9; Rev. 3:5). See alsoArchangel.

Located in the biblical Negev, this city was significant forthe patriarchs and continued as the recognized southern boundary ofthe political entity of Israel. The biblical Negev is shaped somewhatlike a bow tie, with Beersheba at its center. Because the Negevreceives between eight and twelve inches of rainfall per year, wateris a critical issue.

Beersheba(Heb. be’er sheba’) means both “well of the seven”and “well of the oath.” The encounters between Abrahamand the Philistine leaders Abimelek and Phicol had to do with waterrights (Gen. 21:22–32). When Abimelek’s servants seized awell that Abraham had dug, he, in order to demonstrate that his ownclaim on the well was valid, offered seven lambs to Abimelek, and thetwo made a treaty. The narrative incorporates both meanings ofsheba’. Although Abraham was a formidable presence in theregion, it is evident that it was under Philistine control at thistime (Gen. 21:33–34). Abraham remained there for a long time,returning to Beersheba after the test on Mount Moriah (Gen. 22:19).

Thesesame elements and names recur in the interactions between Isaac andthe Philistine leaders (Gen. 26:12–33). Isaac grew to beexceedingly wealthy, so the Philistines stopped up the wells that hadbeen dug in the time of Abraham. Abim­e­lek urged Isaac tomove away, which he did, but the tensions over water rightscontinued. Finally, Isaac went to Beersheba, where God reaffirmed tohim the covenant with Abraham, and, in a mirror event, he andAbimelek reaffirmed their treaty, complete with an oath and thedigging of another well.

Beershebacontinued to be a center for the seminomadic patriarchs. Isaac livedthere with his family; after Jacob tricked Esau out of Isaac’sblessing, Jacob left Beersheba and headed for Harran (Gen. 28:10).Near the end of his life, as he set out for Egypt to rejoin Joseph,Jacob stopped in Beersheba to offer sacrifices to God (46:1–5).Much later, as Elijah fled from Jezebel and made his way back toHoreb, the source of the covenant, he stopped at Beersheba (1 Kings19:1–8).

Beershebafigured into the inheritance for two tribes. It was listed among thesouthernmost towns in Judah (Josh. 15:28), but Simeon’sinheritance within the allotment of Judah included Beersheba (19:2),and descendants of Simeon lived in Beersheba (1 Chron. 4:28).From the period of the judges until the end of the united monarchy,the expression “from Dan to Beersheba” indicated theextent from north to south of Israel (e.g., Judg. 20:1; 1 Sam.3:23; 2 Sam. 3:10). After the secession and demise of thenorthern kingdom, Beersheba still indicated the southern boundary(e.g., 2 Chron. 19:4; 30:5). In the postexilic period the peopleof Judah inhabited territory from Beersheba to the Hinnom Valley(Neh. 11:27–30).

Accordingto 2 Kings 23:8, Josiah “desecrated the high places, fromGeba to Beersheba. . . . He broke down the gateway atthe entrance of the Gate of Joshua, the city governor, which was onthe left of the city gate.” The site of Tel Sheva (identifiedas ancient Beersheba) has a structure just inside and to the left ofthe Iron Age gate, where steps indicate a second story, very possiblythe governor’s house. Of equal importance is the discovery ofthree stone blocks of a horned altar, found in secondary usage in astoreroom wall. The horn on a fourth block had been broken off. Thesewere seemingly removed from a basem*nt house, a building that hadbeen destroyed, perhaps in Hezekiah’s reform and purge of theland (2 Kings 18; 2 Chron. 31).

An arid environment challenging to life. Desert comprises about a third of the earth’s land surface, often overtaking verdant areas and squeezing human beings and animals into narrower oases. The deserts of the Bible—Negev, Sinai, Paran, and Zin—are part of the greater Saharo-Arabian desert system, the largest and driest in the world. Most of the land east (areas of present-day Jordan, Iraq, Saudi Arabia) and south (Egypt) of Palestine is desert. However, the desert experience of most Israelites was not vast sands but rather arid environments that could otherwise flourish with sufficient water. In this regard, the biblical “wilderness” and “desert” semantically overlap, but they are not the same environments.

With average precipitation of ten inches or less, these regions typically have sparse vegetation and little or no agriculture (Jer. 2:2). Pliny the Elder (AD 23/24–79) describes the Essenes, who lived near the Dead Sea, as having only “the company of palm trees” (Nat. 5.73). Temperatures are severe, often exceeding 110°F on summer days, but also falling below freezing on winter nights. The limited winter rains provide short-lived grass for grazing (1Sam. 17:28; Ps. 65:13; Jer. 23:10), along with thorns and briers (Judg. 8:7). Cisterns were dug to collect the precious rain (Gen. 37:22).

The severity of the environment is not conducive for animal and human life. The Bible mentions wild asses (Job 24:5; Jer. 48:6), jackals (Mal. 1:3), ostriches (Lam. 4:3), owls (Ps. 102:7), poisonous snakes (Isa. 30:6), panthers, and wolves (Hab. 1:8). The desert came to be viewed as the haunt of demons (Matt. 12:43) but also as a place for spiritual refreshment. By definition, a desert is untouched by human hands. The patterns and sounds go back to God, not the noisy neighbors of urban life. The desert therefore can facilitate communion with God because of the absence of distractions and the inevitable deepening awareness of the fragility of existence. Scarcity of resources also requires communal sharing and cooperation for survival.

Instead of in major urban centers in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Palestine, the Bible presents God as training people in the desert by testing their faith, beginning with the patriarchs (Gen. 12–50). God redeems Israel out of Egypt into the desert (Exod. 15:22; 16:1; 17:1), leading them to Sinai (Exod. 18:5; 19:1–2) and then a forty-year sojourn (Num. 14:33; 32:13; Deut. 2:7). Following seasons of testing, concerning which the people routinely fail, God provides freshwater and manna, the “grain of heaven” (Ps. 78:24). However, except on the Sabbath, people are not allowed to store the food but must cultivate complete dependence upon God’s provision for their daily bread. Elijah flees into the wilderness and is provided for by an angel (1Kings 19:1–8). He returns to Mount Sinai (Horeb) and experiences the immediate presence of God in a “thin silence” (1Kings 19:8–13; NIV: “gentle whisper”).

This pattern is repeated in the NT, beginning with John the Baptist, who dresses like a desert nomad and subsists on locusts and wild honey—foods near at hand and not subject to agricultural tithing (Matt. 3:4; Mark 1:6). After John’s baptism, Jesus departs into the wilderness, where he fasts and is tempted for forty days and nights among the wild beasts but is also provided for by angels (Matt. 4:1–11 pars.). Paul, after his experience on the road to Damascus, departs into Arabia (Nabatea, present-day Jordan), the place “where the nomads live” and the traditional site of Mount Sinai (Pliny the Elder, Nat. 5.72; Gal. 1:17; 4:25). (Damascus, perhaps the oldest city in the world, is an oasis bordering the Arabian Desert on a highway connecting Egypt with Mesopotamia.) The author of Revelation depicts a woman, who represents the people of God, fleeing into the wilderness to escape the red dragon, Satan (Rev. 12:1–6).

In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.

Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle

Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.

Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).

Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.

Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle

The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.

Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.

Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).

Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.

Cooking Utensils

Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.

Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.

The Cooking of Food

The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.

Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).

After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).

The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.

Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).

The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).

Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.

Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.

Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).

Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).

Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).

Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).

In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).

Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).

Mountains, both literally and metaphorically, play a highlysignificant role in biblical history, religion, and theology. Peopleare shaped by the geography of the location in which they live, andthis was no less the case with the Israelites. Mountains, aspermanent and immovable, form natural barriers and borders (Josh.15), afford protection from invaders (Judg. 6:2; Ps. 125:2), serve asplaces of refuge (Gen. 14:10; 19:17; 1Sam. 14:22), and providebases from which to launch attacks (Judg. 4:14; 9:36). Often in theBible, mountain imagery is used to describe God as eternal and astrong refuge (Pss. 36:6; 90:2; 121:1–2; 125:2).

Butmountains are also places of mystery. In the religious world of theancient Near East, gods were thought to either live or make theirpresence known on mountains—portals, as it were, between heavenand earth. The garden of Eden is regarded by Ezekiel as having beenlocated on “the holy mount of God” (Ezek. 28:13–14).God mysteriously reveals himself in a flame of fire to Moses at MountHoreb (Exod. 3), and then later from that same mountain God gives thelaw amid thunder, fire, and smoke; the people are not allowed toapproach the mountain lest they die (Exod. 19). Moses has anothertheophany on the same mountain (Exod. 33:17–34:8), and Elijahhas a very Moses-like encounter there with God as well (1Kings19).

Becauseof this association between gods and mountains, it was the norm tobuild temples for deities on mountaintops. Thus, the temple inJerusalem is built on Mount Zion, which is also the place whereAbraham had been ready to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:2; 2Chron.3:1). Thus, this mountain is the “mountain of the Lord”(Gen. 22:14), the mountain of God’s “inheritance”(Exod. 15:17), his “holy mountain” (Ps. 48:1). Even theplans for the tabernacle and temples are given on mountaintops (Exod.25:40; 26:30; 27:8; 2Sam. 24:18–25; 1Chron.21:18–22:1; 28:11–12; Ezek. 40:1–2; Rev. 21:10). Itshould not escape notice that Israel’s legal tradition andliturgical tradition are both associated with mountains, Sinai andZion (Jerusalem).

Itis no wonder, then, that mountains play such a significant role inthe NT and the life of Christ. On top of a high mountain, the deviltempts Jesus to worship him (Matt. 4:8–10). Jesus proclaims thelaw of the kingdom from a mountain (5:1). On a mountain, Jesuschooses to reveal to his disciples his true glory in thetransfiguration (17:1). After his resurrection, Jesus has hisdisciples meet him at a mountain, from which he makes his declarationof authority and gives the Great Commission (28:16–20). ButJesus and the NT authors also “relocate” the place wherepeople meet with God from any particular location, mountain orotherwise, to the human spirit and to the church (John 4:21–24;Heb. 12:22–23).

It is difficult to imagine a world without consistentmetrological systems. Society’s basic structures, from economyto law, require a uniform and accurate method for measuring time,distances, weights, volumes, and so on. In today’s world,technological advancements allow people to measure various aspects ofthe universe with incredible accuracy—from nanometers tolight-years, milligrams to kilograms.

Themetrological systems employed in biblical times span the sameconcepts as our own modern-day systems: weight, linear distance, andvolume or capacity. However, the systems of weights and measurementsemployed during the span of biblical times were not nearly asaccurate or uniform as the modern units employed today. Preexistingweight and measurement systems existed in the contextual surroundingsof both the OT and the NT authors and thus heavily influenced thesystems employed by the Israelite nation as well as the NT writers.There was great variance between the different standards usedmerchant to merchant (Gen. 23:16), city to city, region to region,time period to time period, even despite the commands to use honestscales and honest weights (Lev. 19:35–36; Deut. 25:13–15;Prov. 11:1; 16:11; 20:23; Ezek. 45:10).

Furthermore,inconsistencies and contradictions exist within the written recordsas well as between archaeological specimens. In addition, significantdifferences are found between preexilic and postexilic measurementsin the biblical texts, and an attempt at merging dry capacity andliquid volume measurements further complicated the issue. This is tobe expected, especially when we consider modern-dayinconsistencies—for example, 1 US liquid pint= 0.473liters, while 1 US dry pint= 0.550 liters. Thus, all modernequivalents given below are approximations, and even the bestestimates have a margin of error of + 5percent or more.

Weights

Weightsin biblical times were carried in a bag or a satchel (Deut. 25:13;Prov. 16:11; Mic. 6:11) and were stones, usually carved into variousanimal shapes for easy identification. Their side or flat bottom wasinscribed with the associated weight and unit of measurement.Thousands of historical artifacts, which differ by significantamounts, have been discovered by archaeologists and thus have greatlycomplicated the work of determining accurate modern-day equivalents.

Beka.Approximately 1⁄5 ounce, or 5.6 grams. Equivalent to 10 gerahsor ½ the sanctuary shekel (Exod. 38:26). Used to measuremetals and goods such as gold (Gen. 24:22).

Gerah.1⁄50 ounce, or 0.56 grams. Equivalent to 1⁄10 beka, 1⁄20shekel (Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25).

Litra.Approximately 12 ounces, or 340 grams. A Roman measure of weight.Used only twice in the NT (John 12:3; 19:39). The precursor to themodern British pound.

Mina.Approximately 1¼ pounds, or 0.56 kilograms. Equivalent to 50shekels. Used to weigh gold (1Kings 10:17; Ezra 2:69), silver(Neh. 7:71–72), and other goods. The prophet Ezekiel redefinedthe proper weight: “Theshekel is to consist of twentygerahs. Twenty shekels plus twenty-five shekels plus fifteen shekelsequal one mina” (Ezek. 45:12). Before this redefinition, therewere arguably 50 shekels per mina. In Jesus’ parable of theservants, he describes the master entrusting to his three servantsvarying amounts—10 minas, 5 minas, 1 mina—implying amonetary value (Luke 19:11–24), probably of either silver orgold. One mina was equivalent to approximately three months’wages for a laborer.

Pim.Approximately 1⁄3 ounce, or 9.3 grams. Equivalent to 2⁄3shekel. Referenced only once in the Scriptures (1Sam. 13:21).

Shekel.Approximately 2⁄5 ounce, or 11 grams. Equivalent toapproximately 2 bekas. The shekel is the basic unit of weightmeasurement in Israelite history, though its actual weight variedsignificantly at different historical points. Examples include the“royal shekel” (2Sam. 14:26), the “commonshekel” (2Kings 7:1), and the “sanctuary shekel,”which was equivalent to 20 gerahs (e.g., Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25;Num. 3:47). Because it was used to weigh out silver or gold, theshekel also functioned as a common monetary unit in the NT world.

Talent.Approximately 75 pounds, or 34 kilograms. Equivalent to approximately60 minas. Various metals were weighed using talents: gold (Exod.25:39; 37:24; 1Chron. 20:2), silver (Exod. 38:27; 1Kings20:39; 2Kings 5:22), and bronze (Exod. 38:29). This probably isderived from the weight of a load that a man could carry.

Table12. Biblical Weights and Measures and Their Modern Equivalents:

Weights

Beka– 10 geraahs; ½ shekel = 1/5 ounce = 5.6 grams

Gerah– 1/10 beka; 1/20 shekel = 1/50 ounce = 0.56 grams

Litra– 12 ounces = 340 grams

Mina– 50 shekels = 1 ¼ pounds = 0.56 kilograms

Pim– 2/3 shekel = 1/3 ounce = 9.3 grams

Shekel– 2 bekas; 20 gerahs = 2/5 ounce = 11 grams

Talent– 60 minas = 75 pounds = 34 kilograms

Linearmeasurements

Cubit– 6 handbreadths = 18 inches = 45.7 centimeters

Day’sjourney = 20-25 miles = 32-40 kilometerse

Fingerbreadth– ¼ handbreadth = ¾ inch = 1.9 centimeterse

Handbreadth– 1/6 cubit = 3 inches = 7.6 centimeters

Milion– 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers

Orguia– 1/100 stadion = 5 feet 11 inches = 1.8 meters

Reed/rod– 108 inches = 274 centimeters

Sabbathday’s journey – 2,000 cubits = ¾ mile = 1.2kilometers

Span– 3 handbreadths = 9 inches = 22.8 centimeters

Stadion– 100 orguiai = 607 feet = 185 meters

Capacity

Cab– 1 omer = ½ gallon = 1.9 liters

Choinix– ¼ gallon = 0.9 liters

Cor– 1 homer; 10 ephahs = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Ephah– 10 omers; 1/10 homer = 3/5 bushel; 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Homer– 10 ephahs; 1 cor = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Koros– 10 bushels; 95 gallons – 360 liters

Omer– 1/10 ephah; 1/100 homer = 2 quarts = 1.9 liters

Saton– 1 seah = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

Seah– 1/3 ephah; 1 saton = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

LiquidVolume

Bath– 1 ephah = 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Batos– 8 gallons = 30.3 liters

Hin– 1/6 bath; 12 logs = 1 gallon; 4 quarts = 3.8 liters

Log– 1/72 bath; 1/12 hin = 1/3 quart = 0.3 liters

Metretes– 10 gallons = 37.8 literes

LinearMeasurements

Linearmeasurements were based upon readily available natural measurementssuch as the distance between the elbow and the hand or between thethumb and the little finger. While convenient, this method ofmeasurement gave rise to significant inconsistencies.

Cubit.Approximately 18 inches, or 45.7 centimeters. Equivalent to 6handbreadths. The standard biblical measure of linear distance, asthe shekel is the standard measurement of weight. The distance fromthe elbow to the outstretched fingertip. Used to describe height,width, length (Exod. 25:10), distance (John 21:8), and depth (Gen.7:20). Use of the cubit is ancient. For simple and approximateconversion into modern units, divide the number of cubits in half formeters, then multiply the number of meters by 3 to arrive at feet.

1cubit = 2 spans = 6 handbreadths = 24 fingerbreadths

Day’sjourney.An approximate measure of distance equivalent to about 20–25miles, or 32–40 kilometers. Several passages reference a singleor multiple days’ journey as a description of the distancetraveled or the distance between two points: “a day’sjourney” (Num. 11:31; 1Kings 19:4), “a three-dayjourney” (Gen. 30:36; Exod. 3:18; 8:27; Jon. 3:3), “sevendays” (Gen. 31:23), and “eleven days” (Deut. 1:2).After visiting Jerusalem for Passover, Jesus’ parents journeyedfor a day (Luke 2:44) before realizing that he was not with them.

Fingerbreadth.The width of the finger, or ¼ of a handbreadth, approximately¾ inch, or 1.9 centimeters. The fingerbreadth was thebeginning building block of the biblical metrological system forlinear measurements. Used only once in the Scriptures, to describethe bronze pillars (Jer. 52:21).

Handbreadth.Approximately 3 inches, or 7.6 centimeters. Equivalent to 1/6 cubit,or four fingerbreadths. Probably the width at the base of the fourfingers. A short measure of length, thus compared to a human’sbrief life (Ps. 39:5). Also the width of the rim on the bread table(Exod. 25:25) and the thickness of the bronze Sea (1Kings7:26).

Milion.Translated “mile” in Matt. 5:41. Greek transliteration ofRoman measurement mille passuum, “a thousand paces.”

Orguia.Approximately 5 feet 11 inches, or 1.8 meters. Also translated as“fathom.” A Greek unit of measurement. Probably thedistance between outstretched fingertip to fingertip. Used to measurethe depth of water (Acts 27:28).

Reed/rod.Approximately 108 inches, or 274 centimeters. This is also a generalterm for a measuring device rather than a specific linear distance(Ezek. 40:3, 5; 42:16–19; Rev. 11:1; 21:15).

Sabbathday’s journey.Approximately ¾ mile, or 1.2 kilometers (Acts 1:12). About2,000 cubits.

Span.Approximately 9 inches, or 22.8 centimeters. Equivalent to threehandbreadths, and ½ cubit. The distance from outstretchedthumb tip to little-finger tip. The length and width of the priest’sbreastpiece (Exod. 28:16).

Stadion.Approximately 607 feet, or 185 meters. Equivalent to 100 orguiai.Used in the measurement of large distances (Matt. 14:24; Luke 24:13;John 6:19; 11:18; Rev. 14:20; 21:16).

LandArea

Seed.The size of a piece of land could also be measured on the basis ofhow much seed was required to plant that field (Lev. 27:16; 1Kings18:32).

Yoke.Fields and lands were measured using logical, available means. Inbiblical times, this meant the amount of land a pair of yoked animalscould plow in one day (1Sam. 14:14; Isa. 5:10).

Capacity

Cab.Approximately ½ gallon, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1 omer.Mentioned only once in the Scriptures, during the siege of Samaria(2Kings 6:25).

Choinix.Approximately ¼ gallon, or 0.9 liters. A Greek measurement,mentioned only once in Scripture (Rev. 6:6).

Cor.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equal to thehomer, and to 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularlyof flour and grains (1Kings 4:22; 1Kings 5:11; 2Chron.2:10; 27:5; Ezra 7:22). In the LXX, cor is also a measure of liquidvolume, particularly oil (1Kings 5:11; 2Chron. 2:10; Ezra45:14).

Ephah.Approximately 3⁄5 bushel (6 gallons, or 22.7 liters).Equivalent to 10 omers, or 1⁄10 homer. Used for measuring flourand grains (e.g., Exod. 29:40; Lev. 6:20). Isaiah prophesied a day ofreduced agricultural yield, when a homer of seed would produce onlyan ephah of grain (Isa. 5:10). The ephah was equal in size to thebath (Ezek. 45:11), which typically was used for liquid measurements.

Homer.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equivalent to1 cor, or 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularly ofvarious grains (Lev. 27:16; Isa. 5:10; Ezek. 45:11, 13–14; Hos.3:2). This is probably a natural measure of the load that a donkeycan carry, in the range of 90 kilograms. There may have existed adirect link between capacity and monetary value, given Lev. 27:16:“fifty shekels of silver to a homer of barley seed.” Alogical deduction of capacity and cost based on known equivalencesmight look something like this:

1homer = 1 mina; 1 ephah = 5 shekels; 1 omer = 1 beka

Koros.Approximately 10 bushels (95 gallons, or 360 liters). A Greek measureof grain (Luke 16:7).

Omer.Approximately 2 quarts, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄10ephah, 1⁄100 homer (Ezek. 45:11). Used by Israel in themeasurement and collection of manna in the wilderness (Exod.16:16–36) and thus roughly equivalent to a person’s dailyfood ration.

Saton.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1 seah. Themeasurement of flour in Jesus’ parable of the kingdom of heaven(Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:21).

Seah.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄3 ephah,or 1 saton. Used to measure flour, grain, seed, and other various drygoods (e.g., 2Kings 7:1; 1Sam. 25:18).

LiquidVolume

Bath.Approximately 6 gallons, or 22.7 liters. Equivalent to 1 ephah, whichtypically was used for measurements of dry capacity. Used in themeasurement of water (1Kings 7:26), oil (1Kings 5:11),and wine (2Chron. 2:10; Isa. 5:10).

Batos.Approximately 8 gallons, or 30.3 liters. A Greek transliteration ofthe Hebrew word bath(see above). A measure of oil (Luke 16:6).

Hin.Approximately 4 quarts (1gallon, or 3.8 liters). Equivalent to1⁄6 bath and 12 logs. Used in the measurement of water (Ezek.4:11), oil (Ezek. 46:5), and wine (Num. 28:14).

Log.Approximately 1⁄3 quart, or 0.3 liter. Equivalent to 1⁄72bath and 1⁄12 hin. Mentioned five times in Scripture,specifically used to measure oil (Lev. 14:10–24).

Metretes.Approximately 10 gallons, or 37.8 liters. Used in the measurement ofwater at the wedding feast (John 2:6).

In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.

Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle

Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.

Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).

Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.

Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle

The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.

Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.

Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).

Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.

Cooking Utensils

Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.

Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.

The Cooking of Food

The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.

Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).

After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).

The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.

Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).

The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).

Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.

Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.

Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).

Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).

Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).

Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).

In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).

Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).

In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.

Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle

Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.

Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).

Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.

Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle

The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.

Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.

Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).

Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.

Cooking Utensils

Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.

Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.

The Cooking of Food

The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.

Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).

After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).

The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.

Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).

The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).

Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.

Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.

Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).

Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).

Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).

Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).

In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).

Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).

In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.

Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle

Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.

Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).

Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.

Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle

The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.

Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.

Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).

Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.

Cooking Utensils

Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.

Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.

The Cooking of Food

The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.

Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).

After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).

The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.

Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).

The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).

Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.

Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.

Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).

Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).

Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).

Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).

In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).

Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).

In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.

Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle

Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.

Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).

Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.

Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle

The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.

Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.

Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).

Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.

Cooking Utensils

Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.

Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.

The Cooking of Food

The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.

Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).

After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).

The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.

Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).

The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).

Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.

Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.

Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).

Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).

Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).

Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).

In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).

Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).

All numbers in the original languages of the Bible arewritten using words, not numerals. Neither the biblical Hebrew northe Koine Greek writing system had distinct written numeral forms torepresent numbers. Preexilic Hebrew inscriptions record numberswritten either with words or in Egyptian hieratic number glyphs.During the exile, exposure to Aramaic resulted in the adoption of theAramaic script to write Hebrew, but there are no clear indicationsthat an Aramaic number system (as reflected in, e.g., the Elephantineinscriptions) was adopted. Hebrew later emulated Greek in assigningto the letters of the alphabet numerical values and so employing themto record numbers, although the practice of assigning numericalvalues to glyphs is also attested in pre-Hellenistic times. InMesopotamia, for example, the practice of assigning numerical valuesto characters from their syllabic writing system seems to haveexisted at least as far back as the eighth century BC. The earliestevidence of this practice in Hebrew dates to no earlier than themiddle of the second century BC, when it was used on Hasmonean coins.

Thevalue and importance of numbers was widely recognized throughout theancient world. Sophisticated mathematical texts are attested in bothMesopotamia and Egypt, although no such texts have been discoveredoriginating in ancient Israel. The use of hieratic numbers inpreexilic Israel suggests that mathematical knowledge may have beenimported, particularly from Egypt. The Akkadian language adapted fromSumerian a hybrid sexagesimal number system, which used cuneiformsymbols to represent numbers. Numbers were written in paired glyphs,one representing the values from 1 to 9, the second representing themultiples of 10 up to 50. For example, 59 was written by combiningthe glyph for 50 with that for 9. Larger numbers were then composedof sets of these paired glyphs. The impact of the sex-a-ges-i-malsystem can still be seen in the division of hours and minutes intosixty parts. Most other Near Eastern cultures, including that ofancient Egypt and Israel, used a decimal system.

Thedecimal system was also used in the Greek-speaking world, and theGreek language, since before the NT era, had employed letters torepresent numbers. The use of archaic letters that had otherwisedisappeared from general usage by NT times gave the Greek alphabettwenty-seven letters, which provided the basis for representingranges 1–9, 10–90, 100–900. Numbers wererepresented by adding letters together, so that the order of letterswas unimportant.

WhenHebrew started using letters to represent numbers, a similar schemewas adopted, although it necessarily stopped at 400 because theHebrew alphabet has only twenty-two letters. For some, this suggeststhat Hebrew may have appropriated the system from Greek, but the samesequence of values in earlier counting indicates that the associationof values 1–9, 10–90, 100–900 with the letters ofthe alphabet was itself not a Greek innovation.

NumberSymbolism

Numbersoften are used with symbolic significance in the Bible. Particularlyprominent are the numbers 7 and 12, together with variations scaledby powers of 10. Other numbers occur frequently and also appear tohave some symbolic significance, including 4, 40, and 1,000. A noteof warning is pertinent, however, because there is a danger both offinding number symbolism where there is none and of overlooking thesymbolic significance of numbers where it is appropriate.

Perhapsthe most prominent symbolic association in the Bible occurs with thenumber seven. Broadly speaking, seven denotes completeness,perfection, or consummation. The number first appears in the creationaccount in association with the first Sabbath, in which it is tied tocompletion and rest. Linked to this are the working week, whichconcluded with a Sabbath, the sabbatical year for the land (Lev.25:2–7), the duration of the major feasts over seven days(e.g., Passover [cf. Lev. 23:6, 34; Ezek. 45:21]), even the number ofyears Jacob worked for Leah and then Rachel (Gen. 29:15–30).God’s promise of comprehensive vengeance upon those who harmCain is reflected in the use of seven (Gen. 4:15; cf. Pss. 12:6;79:12; Prov. 6:31; Isa. 30:26). The idea that seven representscompleteness can be seen in the seventy nations recorded in Gen. 10and in the description of Yahweh as having seven eyes (Zech. 4:10).In the NT, the symbolic use of seven is expanded: it is used by Jesusin explaining unlimited forgiveness (Matt. 18:21–22) and mostextensively by the author of Revelation, where reference is made toseven churches (1:4, 11, 20), spirits (1:4; 3:1; 5:6), goldenlampstands (1:12; 2:1), stars (1:16; 2:1), seals (5:5; 6:1), eyes(5:6), angels (8:2, 6; 15:6, 7, 8; 16:1; 17:1; 21:9), trumpets (8:2,6), thunderclaps (10:3, 4), crowns (12:3), heads (12:3; 13:1; 17:3,7, 9), plagues (15:6, 8; 21:9), golden bowls (15:7; 16:1; 17:1),mountains (17:9), and kings (17:10).

Arisingout of the observations relating to the symbolic use of the numberseven are the manner in which its significance also applied torelated numbers such as 7×7 =49 (cf. Lev.25:8–55) and 7×10 =70 (cf. Exod. 24:1,9; Jer. 25:12; 29:10; Dan. 9:2, 24; Luke 10:1–17).

Thenext most significant number with symbolic associations is twelve. Inthe OT, the primary association is with the tribes of Israel, andthis association later develops to encompass God’s people intheir entirety. It is likely that such an association is deliberatelymade in Jesus’ choice of twelve apostles.

Thenumber ten is also associated with the practice of tithing, which wascommon throughout the ancient Near East. The number ten alone doesnot have a clear symbolic usage, although when a power of ten (e.g.,1,000 or 10,000) is used, these can represent any vast or unnumberedquantity (see “Large Numbers” below). Ten is also used incombination with other symbolic values to express the same symbolicnotion emphatically; for example, 70 (7×10) or 77(7×10 +7) become emphatic affirmations ofcompleteness, perfection, or consummation (e.g., Gen. 4:24; Matt.18:22).

Thenumber four appears to have some symbolic significance, perhaps dueto the typical enumeration of the four cardinal directions,suggesting geographical or cosmological entirety (cf. Isa. 11:12;Jer. 49:36; Zech. 6:5). For example, four rivers leave Eden to waterthe entire land (Gen. 2:10–14).

Thenumber forty appears frequently in association with long periods ofendurance, such as Moses on the mountain (forty days [Exod. 24:18]),the time in the wilderness (forty years [Exod. 16:35]), Elijah’sjourney to Horeb (forty days [1Kings 19:8]), Jesus’ timein the wilderness (forty days/nights [Matt. 4:2; Mark 1:13; Luke4:2]), and his time with his disciples following the resurrection(forty days [Acts 1:3]).

LargeNumbers

Somescholars have argued that the large numbers in the OT present aparticular problem in several places. Based on the figures in Num. 1,for example, there were 603,550 men of fighting age among those inthe exodus, suggesting a total population of between one and threemillion (not counting livestock). Taken at face value, this numberpresents some difficulties: based on estimates of Egyptianpopulation, it represents a very significant proportion of the entirepopulation of that country; taken in conjunction with the number offirstborn recorded in Num. 3:43, it implies a very large averagefamily size; it seems difficult to reconcile with the claim that theseven nations in the land of Canaan were greater than Israel (Deut.4:38; 7:1; 9:1–2); and the logistics of moving that many peoplewould pose significant problems.

However,if the observation made by Pharaoh in Exod. 1:9, that the Hebrewswere more numerous than the Egyptians, was even approximatelyaccurate, then a population of between one and two million would beappropriate. Nonetheless, various attempts have been made to mitigatethe perceived difficulties by suggesting approaches that interpretthe text in ways that result in significantly smaller populationestimates for the Israelites.

Thelargest single-number word used in the OT is rebabah, which is usedto represent large values greater than ten thousand but otherwiseoften lacks precision and is better understood to refer to a vastunnumbered multitude (e.g., Pss. 3:6; 91:7; Song 5:10). Similarly,the number one thousand can be used rhetorically without demandingmathematical precision (e.g., 2Pet. 3:8, which should not beunderstood to provide a mathematical equation). It is this latternumber that appears in the difficult passages in Numbers. The bestsolution to the problems lies in the meaning of the Hebrew term inquestion, ’elep (“thousand”). Several scholars havesuggested that ’elep can also refer to a military unit or someother group (cf. Num. 1:16). Although the precise numbers in questionare debated according to varying understandings of the sizes of thegroups, the best solutions put the total number of Israelites in theexodus at around thirty thousand.

Gematria

Gematriais a system for calculating numerical values for words by assigningspecific values to the letters of an alphabet. As noted above, thepractice was used for legitimate numerical notation in Greek and, insome periods, in Hebrew. Letters were assigned values based on theirorder within the alphabet, the first nine letters assigned values1–9, the next nine assigned values 10–90, and thesubsequent letters assigned multiples of 100.

Althoughnumerology of various forms, and in particular gematria, has formedthe basis of many misguided attempts to discover hidden meaningswithin the biblical text, there appear to be explicit uses ofgematria in Rev. 13:18 and, some suggest, in John 21:11. If thenumber 666 is an actual example of gematria, no consensus has beenreached over the identity of the referent.

Mostof the other supposed examples of gematria within the pages of theBible are unconvincing, largely because the texts wherein suchexamples are found make good sense without resorting to obscure anduncertain interpretations, and partly because it runs counter to thenotion that God speaks to make his will known (e.g., Deut. 29:29).

In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.

Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle

Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.

Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).

Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.

Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle

The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.

Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.

Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).

Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.

Cooking Utensils

Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.

Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.

The Cooking of Food

The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.

Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).

After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).

The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.

Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).

The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).

Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.

Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.

Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).

Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).

Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).

Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).

In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).

Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).

The way the word “soul” is used in English doesnot align well with any single Hebrew or Greek word in the Bible.Rather, it reflects the accumulation of cultural and religiousunderstanding of the past. It is widely accepted that the biblicalview (both OT and NT) of humanity does not recognize sharp boundariesbetween body and soul (bipartite anthropology) or between body, soul,and spirit (tripartite). The human being is, according to biblicalteaching, a psychosomatic unity. In fact, nepesh, the Hebrew wordmost commonly translated as “soul,” probably should moreoften be translated as “self.” In several occurrences inthe OT, nepesh seems to mean “life” (Josh. 2:13; 1Kings19:4). Of course, given the Hellenistic background of the LXX and theNT, Greek psychēcould mean something akin to “soul” as it is commonlyused in English. But close examination shows that the NT use of theword is much closer to the OT conception than to its contemporaryHellenistic sense.

Nevertheless,our intuition leads us to make a conceptual distinction between thenonphysical abode of our “hearts and minds” and thephysical presence of our being. At the most basic level, it relatesto the question of death and its aftermath: when we die, can anythingremain apart from the physicality of our existence? The Greek answerto this is belief in the immortality of the soul; the biblical answeris resurrection of the body. Since the Bible maintains thepsychosomatic unity, purely nonphysical existence for the nonphysicalpart of humanity is not presented as a valid answer to thefundamental question of death. This is why the OT describes a deadperson as “sleeping with his fathers.” The NT concept ofsoul is clearly based on the OT counterpart; nevertheless, there isalso a clearer distinction between body and soul. An example isprovided by Jesus when he says, “Do not be afraid of those whokill the body but cannot kill the soul” (Matt. 10:28).

It is difficult to imagine a world without consistentmetrological systems. Society’s basic structures, from economyto law, require a uniform and accurate method for measuring time,distances, weights, volumes, and so on. In today’s world,technological advancements allow people to measure various aspects ofthe universe with incredible accuracy—from nanometers tolight-years, milligrams to kilograms.

Themetrological systems employed in biblical times span the sameconcepts as our own modern-day systems: weight, linear distance, andvolume or capacity. However, the systems of weights and measurementsemployed during the span of biblical times were not nearly asaccurate or uniform as the modern units employed today. Preexistingweight and measurement systems existed in the contextual surroundingsof both the OT and the NT authors and thus heavily influenced thesystems employed by the Israelite nation as well as the NT writers.There was great variance between the different standards usedmerchant to merchant (Gen. 23:16), city to city, region to region,time period to time period, even despite the commands to use honestscales and honest weights (Lev. 19:35–36; Deut. 25:13–15;Prov. 11:1; 16:11; 20:23; Ezek. 45:10).

Furthermore,inconsistencies and contradictions exist within the written recordsas well as between archaeological specimens. In addition, significantdifferences are found between preexilic and postexilic measurementsin the biblical texts, and an attempt at merging dry capacity andliquid volume measurements further complicated the issue. This is tobe expected, especially when we consider modern-dayinconsistencies—for example, 1 US liquid pint= 0.473liters, while 1 US dry pint= 0.550 liters. Thus, all modernequivalents given below are approximations, and even the bestestimates have a margin of error of + 5percent or more.

Weights

Weightsin biblical times were carried in a bag or a satchel (Deut. 25:13;Prov. 16:11; Mic. 6:11) and were stones, usually carved into variousanimal shapes for easy identification. Their side or flat bottom wasinscribed with the associated weight and unit of measurement.Thousands of historical artifacts, which differ by significantamounts, have been discovered by archaeologists and thus have greatlycomplicated the work of determining accurate modern-day equivalents.

Beka.Approximately 1⁄5 ounce, or 5.6 grams. Equivalent to 10 gerahsor ½ the sanctuary shekel (Exod. 38:26). Used to measuremetals and goods such as gold (Gen. 24:22).

Gerah.1⁄50 ounce, or 0.56 grams. Equivalent to 1⁄10 beka, 1⁄20shekel (Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25).

Litra.Approximately 12 ounces, or 340 grams. A Roman measure of weight.Used only twice in the NT (John 12:3; 19:39). The precursor to themodern British pound.

Mina.Approximately 1¼ pounds, or 0.56 kilograms. Equivalent to 50shekels. Used to weigh gold (1Kings 10:17; Ezra 2:69), silver(Neh. 7:71–72), and other goods. The prophet Ezekiel redefinedthe proper weight: “Theshekel is to consist of twentygerahs. Twenty shekels plus twenty-five shekels plus fifteen shekelsequal one mina” (Ezek. 45:12). Before this redefinition, therewere arguably 50 shekels per mina. In Jesus’ parable of theservants, he describes the master entrusting to his three servantsvarying amounts—10 minas, 5 minas, 1 mina—implying amonetary value (Luke 19:11–24), probably of either silver orgold. One mina was equivalent to approximately three months’wages for a laborer.

Pim.Approximately 1⁄3 ounce, or 9.3 grams. Equivalent to 2⁄3shekel. Referenced only once in the Scriptures (1Sam. 13:21).

Shekel.Approximately 2⁄5 ounce, or 11 grams. Equivalent toapproximately 2 bekas. The shekel is the basic unit of weightmeasurement in Israelite history, though its actual weight variedsignificantly at different historical points. Examples include the“royal shekel” (2Sam. 14:26), the “commonshekel” (2Kings 7:1), and the “sanctuary shekel,”which was equivalent to 20 gerahs (e.g., Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25;Num. 3:47). Because it was used to weigh out silver or gold, theshekel also functioned as a common monetary unit in the NT world.

Talent.Approximately 75 pounds, or 34 kilograms. Equivalent to approximately60 minas. Various metals were weighed using talents: gold (Exod.25:39; 37:24; 1Chron. 20:2), silver (Exod. 38:27; 1Kings20:39; 2Kings 5:22), and bronze (Exod. 38:29). This probably isderived from the weight of a load that a man could carry.

Table12. Biblical Weights and Measures and Their Modern Equivalents:

Weights

Beka– 10 geraahs; ½ shekel = 1/5 ounce = 5.6 grams

Gerah– 1/10 beka; 1/20 shekel = 1/50 ounce = 0.56 grams

Litra– 12 ounces = 340 grams

Mina– 50 shekels = 1 ¼ pounds = 0.56 kilograms

Pim– 2/3 shekel = 1/3 ounce = 9.3 grams

Shekel– 2 bekas; 20 gerahs = 2/5 ounce = 11 grams

Talent– 60 minas = 75 pounds = 34 kilograms

Linearmeasurements

Cubit– 6 handbreadths = 18 inches = 45.7 centimeters

Day’sjourney = 20-25 miles = 32-40 kilometerse

Fingerbreadth– ¼ handbreadth = ¾ inch = 1.9 centimeterse

Handbreadth– 1/6 cubit = 3 inches = 7.6 centimeters

Milion– 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers

Orguia– 1/100 stadion = 5 feet 11 inches = 1.8 meters

Reed/rod– 108 inches = 274 centimeters

Sabbathday’s journey – 2,000 cubits = ¾ mile = 1.2kilometers

Span– 3 handbreadths = 9 inches = 22.8 centimeters

Stadion– 100 orguiai = 607 feet = 185 meters

Capacity

Cab– 1 omer = ½ gallon = 1.9 liters

Choinix– ¼ gallon = 0.9 liters

Cor– 1 homer; 10 ephahs = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Ephah– 10 omers; 1/10 homer = 3/5 bushel; 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Homer– 10 ephahs; 1 cor = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Koros– 10 bushels; 95 gallons – 360 liters

Omer– 1/10 ephah; 1/100 homer = 2 quarts = 1.9 liters

Saton– 1 seah = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

Seah– 1/3 ephah; 1 saton = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

LiquidVolume

Bath– 1 ephah = 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Batos– 8 gallons = 30.3 liters

Hin– 1/6 bath; 12 logs = 1 gallon; 4 quarts = 3.8 liters

Log– 1/72 bath; 1/12 hin = 1/3 quart = 0.3 liters

Metretes– 10 gallons = 37.8 literes

LinearMeasurements

Linearmeasurements were based upon readily available natural measurementssuch as the distance between the elbow and the hand or between thethumb and the little finger. While convenient, this method ofmeasurement gave rise to significant inconsistencies.

Cubit.Approximately 18 inches, or 45.7 centimeters. Equivalent to 6handbreadths. The standard biblical measure of linear distance, asthe shekel is the standard measurement of weight. The distance fromthe elbow to the outstretched fingertip. Used to describe height,width, length (Exod. 25:10), distance (John 21:8), and depth (Gen.7:20). Use of the cubit is ancient. For simple and approximateconversion into modern units, divide the number of cubits in half formeters, then multiply the number of meters by 3 to arrive at feet.

1cubit = 2 spans = 6 handbreadths = 24 fingerbreadths

Day’sjourney.An approximate measure of distance equivalent to about 20–25miles, or 32–40 kilometers. Several passages reference a singleor multiple days’ journey as a description of the distancetraveled or the distance between two points: “a day’sjourney” (Num. 11:31; 1Kings 19:4), “a three-dayjourney” (Gen. 30:36; Exod. 3:18; 8:27; Jon. 3:3), “sevendays” (Gen. 31:23), and “eleven days” (Deut. 1:2).After visiting Jerusalem for Passover, Jesus’ parents journeyedfor a day (Luke 2:44) before realizing that he was not with them.

Fingerbreadth.The width of the finger, or ¼ of a handbreadth, approximately¾ inch, or 1.9 centimeters. The fingerbreadth was thebeginning building block of the biblical metrological system forlinear measurements. Used only once in the Scriptures, to describethe bronze pillars (Jer. 52:21).

Handbreadth.Approximately 3 inches, or 7.6 centimeters. Equivalent to 1/6 cubit,or four fingerbreadths. Probably the width at the base of the fourfingers. A short measure of length, thus compared to a human’sbrief life (Ps. 39:5). Also the width of the rim on the bread table(Exod. 25:25) and the thickness of the bronze Sea (1Kings7:26).

Milion.Translated “mile” in Matt. 5:41. Greek transliteration ofRoman measurement mille passuum, “a thousand paces.”

Orguia.Approximately 5 feet 11 inches, or 1.8 meters. Also translated as“fathom.” A Greek unit of measurement. Probably thedistance between outstretched fingertip to fingertip. Used to measurethe depth of water (Acts 27:28).

Reed/rod.Approximately 108 inches, or 274 centimeters. This is also a generalterm for a measuring device rather than a specific linear distance(Ezek. 40:3, 5; 42:16–19; Rev. 11:1; 21:15).

Sabbathday’s journey.Approximately ¾ mile, or 1.2 kilometers (Acts 1:12). About2,000 cubits.

Span.Approximately 9 inches, or 22.8 centimeters. Equivalent to threehandbreadths, and ½ cubit. The distance from outstretchedthumb tip to little-finger tip. The length and width of the priest’sbreastpiece (Exod. 28:16).

Stadion.Approximately 607 feet, or 185 meters. Equivalent to 100 orguiai.Used in the measurement of large distances (Matt. 14:24; Luke 24:13;John 6:19; 11:18; Rev. 14:20; 21:16).

LandArea

Seed.The size of a piece of land could also be measured on the basis ofhow much seed was required to plant that field (Lev. 27:16; 1Kings18:32).

Yoke.Fields and lands were measured using logical, available means. Inbiblical times, this meant the amount of land a pair of yoked animalscould plow in one day (1Sam. 14:14; Isa. 5:10).

Capacity

Cab.Approximately ½ gallon, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1 omer.Mentioned only once in the Scriptures, during the siege of Samaria(2Kings 6:25).

Choinix.Approximately ¼ gallon, or 0.9 liters. A Greek measurement,mentioned only once in Scripture (Rev. 6:6).

Cor.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equal to thehomer, and to 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularlyof flour and grains (1Kings 4:22; 1Kings 5:11; 2Chron.2:10; 27:5; Ezra 7:22). In the LXX, cor is also a measure of liquidvolume, particularly oil (1Kings 5:11; 2Chron. 2:10; Ezra45:14).

Ephah.Approximately 3⁄5 bushel (6 gallons, or 22.7 liters).Equivalent to 10 omers, or 1⁄10 homer. Used for measuring flourand grains (e.g., Exod. 29:40; Lev. 6:20). Isaiah prophesied a day ofreduced agricultural yield, when a homer of seed would produce onlyan ephah of grain (Isa. 5:10). The ephah was equal in size to thebath (Ezek. 45:11), which typically was used for liquid measurements.

Homer.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equivalent to1 cor, or 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularly ofvarious grains (Lev. 27:16; Isa. 5:10; Ezek. 45:11, 13–14; Hos.3:2). This is probably a natural measure of the load that a donkeycan carry, in the range of 90 kilograms. There may have existed adirect link between capacity and monetary value, given Lev. 27:16:“fifty shekels of silver to a homer of barley seed.” Alogical deduction of capacity and cost based on known equivalencesmight look something like this:

1homer = 1 mina; 1 ephah = 5 shekels; 1 omer = 1 beka

Koros.Approximately 10 bushels (95 gallons, or 360 liters). A Greek measureof grain (Luke 16:7).

Omer.Approximately 2 quarts, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄10ephah, 1⁄100 homer (Ezek. 45:11). Used by Israel in themeasurement and collection of manna in the wilderness (Exod.16:16–36) and thus roughly equivalent to a person’s dailyfood ration.

Saton.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1 seah. Themeasurement of flour in Jesus’ parable of the kingdom of heaven(Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:21).

Seah.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄3 ephah,or 1 saton. Used to measure flour, grain, seed, and other various drygoods (e.g., 2Kings 7:1; 1Sam. 25:18).

LiquidVolume

Bath.Approximately 6 gallons, or 22.7 liters. Equivalent to 1 ephah, whichtypically was used for measurements of dry capacity. Used in themeasurement of water (1Kings 7:26), oil (1Kings 5:11),and wine (2Chron. 2:10; Isa. 5:10).

Batos.Approximately 8 gallons, or 30.3 liters. A Greek transliteration ofthe Hebrew word bath(see above). A measure of oil (Luke 16:6).

Hin.Approximately 4 quarts (1gallon, or 3.8 liters). Equivalent to1⁄6 bath and 12 logs. Used in the measurement of water (Ezek.4:11), oil (Ezek. 46:5), and wine (Num. 28:14).

Log.Approximately 1⁄3 quart, or 0.3 liter. Equivalent to 1⁄72bath and 1⁄12 hin. Mentioned five times in Scripture,specifically used to measure oil (Lev. 14:10–24).

Metretes.Approximately 10 gallons, or 37.8 liters. Used in the measurement ofwater at the wedding feast (John 2:6).

It is difficult to imagine a world without consistentmetrological systems. Society’s basic structures, from economyto law, require a uniform and accurate method for measuring time,distances, weights, volumes, and so on. In today’s world,technological advancements allow people to measure various aspects ofthe universe with incredible accuracy—from nanometers tolight-years, milligrams to kilograms.

Themetrological systems employed in biblical times span the sameconcepts as our own modern-day systems: weight, linear distance, andvolume or capacity. However, the systems of weights and measurementsemployed during the span of biblical times were not nearly asaccurate or uniform as the modern units employed today. Preexistingweight and measurement systems existed in the contextual surroundingsof both the OT and the NT authors and thus heavily influenced thesystems employed by the Israelite nation as well as the NT writers.There was great variance between the different standards usedmerchant to merchant (Gen. 23:16), city to city, region to region,time period to time period, even despite the commands to use honestscales and honest weights (Lev. 19:35–36; Deut. 25:13–15;Prov. 11:1; 16:11; 20:23; Ezek. 45:10).

Furthermore,inconsistencies and contradictions exist within the written recordsas well as between archaeological specimens. In addition, significantdifferences are found between preexilic and postexilic measurementsin the biblical texts, and an attempt at merging dry capacity andliquid volume measurements further complicated the issue. This is tobe expected, especially when we consider modern-dayinconsistencies—for example, 1 US liquid pint= 0.473liters, while 1 US dry pint= 0.550 liters. Thus, all modernequivalents given below are approximations, and even the bestestimates have a margin of error of + 5percent or more.

Weights

Weightsin biblical times were carried in a bag or a satchel (Deut. 25:13;Prov. 16:11; Mic. 6:11) and were stones, usually carved into variousanimal shapes for easy identification. Their side or flat bottom wasinscribed with the associated weight and unit of measurement.Thousands of historical artifacts, which differ by significantamounts, have been discovered by archaeologists and thus have greatlycomplicated the work of determining accurate modern-day equivalents.

Beka.Approximately 1⁄5 ounce, or 5.6 grams. Equivalent to 10 gerahsor ½ the sanctuary shekel (Exod. 38:26). Used to measuremetals and goods such as gold (Gen. 24:22).

Gerah.1⁄50 ounce, or 0.56 grams. Equivalent to 1⁄10 beka, 1⁄20shekel (Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25).

Litra.Approximately 12 ounces, or 340 grams. A Roman measure of weight.Used only twice in the NT (John 12:3; 19:39). The precursor to themodern British pound.

Mina.Approximately 1¼ pounds, or 0.56 kilograms. Equivalent to 50shekels. Used to weigh gold (1Kings 10:17; Ezra 2:69), silver(Neh. 7:71–72), and other goods. The prophet Ezekiel redefinedthe proper weight: “Theshekel is to consist of twentygerahs. Twenty shekels plus twenty-five shekels plus fifteen shekelsequal one mina” (Ezek. 45:12). Before this redefinition, therewere arguably 50 shekels per mina. In Jesus’ parable of theservants, he describes the master entrusting to his three servantsvarying amounts—10 minas, 5 minas, 1 mina—implying amonetary value (Luke 19:11–24), probably of either silver orgold. One mina was equivalent to approximately three months’wages for a laborer.

Pim.Approximately 1⁄3 ounce, or 9.3 grams. Equivalent to 2⁄3shekel. Referenced only once in the Scriptures (1Sam. 13:21).

Shekel.Approximately 2⁄5 ounce, or 11 grams. Equivalent toapproximately 2 bekas. The shekel is the basic unit of weightmeasurement in Israelite history, though its actual weight variedsignificantly at different historical points. Examples include the“royal shekel” (2Sam. 14:26), the “commonshekel” (2Kings 7:1), and the “sanctuary shekel,”which was equivalent to 20 gerahs (e.g., Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25;Num. 3:47). Because it was used to weigh out silver or gold, theshekel also functioned as a common monetary unit in the NT world.

Talent.Approximately 75 pounds, or 34 kilograms. Equivalent to approximately60 minas. Various metals were weighed using talents: gold (Exod.25:39; 37:24; 1Chron. 20:2), silver (Exod. 38:27; 1Kings20:39; 2Kings 5:22), and bronze (Exod. 38:29). This probably isderived from the weight of a load that a man could carry.

Table12. Biblical Weights and Measures and Their Modern Equivalents:

Weights

Beka– 10 geraahs; ½ shekel = 1/5 ounce = 5.6 grams

Gerah– 1/10 beka; 1/20 shekel = 1/50 ounce = 0.56 grams

Litra– 12 ounces = 340 grams

Mina– 50 shekels = 1 ¼ pounds = 0.56 kilograms

Pim– 2/3 shekel = 1/3 ounce = 9.3 grams

Shekel– 2 bekas; 20 gerahs = 2/5 ounce = 11 grams

Talent– 60 minas = 75 pounds = 34 kilograms

Linearmeasurements

Cubit– 6 handbreadths = 18 inches = 45.7 centimeters

Day’sjourney = 20-25 miles = 32-40 kilometerse

Fingerbreadth– ¼ handbreadth = ¾ inch = 1.9 centimeterse

Handbreadth– 1/6 cubit = 3 inches = 7.6 centimeters

Milion– 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers

Orguia– 1/100 stadion = 5 feet 11 inches = 1.8 meters

Reed/rod– 108 inches = 274 centimeters

Sabbathday’s journey – 2,000 cubits = ¾ mile = 1.2kilometers

Span– 3 handbreadths = 9 inches = 22.8 centimeters

Stadion– 100 orguiai = 607 feet = 185 meters

Capacity

Cab– 1 omer = ½ gallon = 1.9 liters

Choinix– ¼ gallon = 0.9 liters

Cor– 1 homer; 10 ephahs = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Ephah– 10 omers; 1/10 homer = 3/5 bushel; 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Homer– 10 ephahs; 1 cor = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Koros– 10 bushels; 95 gallons – 360 liters

Omer– 1/10 ephah; 1/100 homer = 2 quarts = 1.9 liters

Saton– 1 seah = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

Seah– 1/3 ephah; 1 saton = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

LiquidVolume

Bath– 1 ephah = 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Batos– 8 gallons = 30.3 liters

Hin– 1/6 bath; 12 logs = 1 gallon; 4 quarts = 3.8 liters

Log– 1/72 bath; 1/12 hin = 1/3 quart = 0.3 liters

Metretes– 10 gallons = 37.8 literes

LinearMeasurements

Linearmeasurements were based upon readily available natural measurementssuch as the distance between the elbow and the hand or between thethumb and the little finger. While convenient, this method ofmeasurement gave rise to significant inconsistencies.

Cubit.Approximately 18 inches, or 45.7 centimeters. Equivalent to 6handbreadths. The standard biblical measure of linear distance, asthe shekel is the standard measurement of weight. The distance fromthe elbow to the outstretched fingertip. Used to describe height,width, length (Exod. 25:10), distance (John 21:8), and depth (Gen.7:20). Use of the cubit is ancient. For simple and approximateconversion into modern units, divide the number of cubits in half formeters, then multiply the number of meters by 3 to arrive at feet.

1cubit = 2 spans = 6 handbreadths = 24 fingerbreadths

Day’sjourney.An approximate measure of distance equivalent to about 20–25miles, or 32–40 kilometers. Several passages reference a singleor multiple days’ journey as a description of the distancetraveled or the distance between two points: “a day’sjourney” (Num. 11:31; 1Kings 19:4), “a three-dayjourney” (Gen. 30:36; Exod. 3:18; 8:27; Jon. 3:3), “sevendays” (Gen. 31:23), and “eleven days” (Deut. 1:2).After visiting Jerusalem for Passover, Jesus’ parents journeyedfor a day (Luke 2:44) before realizing that he was not with them.

Fingerbreadth.The width of the finger, or ¼ of a handbreadth, approximately¾ inch, or 1.9 centimeters. The fingerbreadth was thebeginning building block of the biblical metrological system forlinear measurements. Used only once in the Scriptures, to describethe bronze pillars (Jer. 52:21).

Handbreadth.Approximately 3 inches, or 7.6 centimeters. Equivalent to 1/6 cubit,or four fingerbreadths. Probably the width at the base of the fourfingers. A short measure of length, thus compared to a human’sbrief life (Ps. 39:5). Also the width of the rim on the bread table(Exod. 25:25) and the thickness of the bronze Sea (1Kings7:26).

Milion.Translated “mile” in Matt. 5:41. Greek transliteration ofRoman measurement mille passuum, “a thousand paces.”

Orguia.Approximately 5 feet 11 inches, or 1.8 meters. Also translated as“fathom.” A Greek unit of measurement. Probably thedistance between outstretched fingertip to fingertip. Used to measurethe depth of water (Acts 27:28).

Reed/rod.Approximately 108 inches, or 274 centimeters. This is also a generalterm for a measuring device rather than a specific linear distance(Ezek. 40:3, 5; 42:16–19; Rev. 11:1; 21:15).

Sabbathday’s journey.Approximately ¾ mile, or 1.2 kilometers (Acts 1:12). About2,000 cubits.

Span.Approximately 9 inches, or 22.8 centimeters. Equivalent to threehandbreadths, and ½ cubit. The distance from outstretchedthumb tip to little-finger tip. The length and width of the priest’sbreastpiece (Exod. 28:16).

Stadion.Approximately 607 feet, or 185 meters. Equivalent to 100 orguiai.Used in the measurement of large distances (Matt. 14:24; Luke 24:13;John 6:19; 11:18; Rev. 14:20; 21:16).

LandArea

Seed.The size of a piece of land could also be measured on the basis ofhow much seed was required to plant that field (Lev. 27:16; 1Kings18:32).

Yoke.Fields and lands were measured using logical, available means. Inbiblical times, this meant the amount of land a pair of yoked animalscould plow in one day (1Sam. 14:14; Isa. 5:10).

Capacity

Cab.Approximately ½ gallon, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1 omer.Mentioned only once in the Scriptures, during the siege of Samaria(2Kings 6:25).

Choinix.Approximately ¼ gallon, or 0.9 liters. A Greek measurement,mentioned only once in Scripture (Rev. 6:6).

Cor.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equal to thehomer, and to 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularlyof flour and grains (1Kings 4:22; 1Kings 5:11; 2Chron.2:10; 27:5; Ezra 7:22). In the LXX, cor is also a measure of liquidvolume, particularly oil (1Kings 5:11; 2Chron. 2:10; Ezra45:14).

Ephah.Approximately 3⁄5 bushel (6 gallons, or 22.7 liters).Equivalent to 10 omers, or 1⁄10 homer. Used for measuring flourand grains (e.g., Exod. 29:40; Lev. 6:20). Isaiah prophesied a day ofreduced agricultural yield, when a homer of seed would produce onlyan ephah of grain (Isa. 5:10). The ephah was equal in size to thebath (Ezek. 45:11), which typically was used for liquid measurements.

Homer.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equivalent to1 cor, or 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularly ofvarious grains (Lev. 27:16; Isa. 5:10; Ezek. 45:11, 13–14; Hos.3:2). This is probably a natural measure of the load that a donkeycan carry, in the range of 90 kilograms. There may have existed adirect link between capacity and monetary value, given Lev. 27:16:“fifty shekels of silver to a homer of barley seed.” Alogical deduction of capacity and cost based on known equivalencesmight look something like this:

1homer = 1 mina; 1 ephah = 5 shekels; 1 omer = 1 beka

Koros.Approximately 10 bushels (95 gallons, or 360 liters). A Greek measureof grain (Luke 16:7).

Omer.Approximately 2 quarts, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄10ephah, 1⁄100 homer (Ezek. 45:11). Used by Israel in themeasurement and collection of manna in the wilderness (Exod.16:16–36) and thus roughly equivalent to a person’s dailyfood ration.

Saton.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1 seah. Themeasurement of flour in Jesus’ parable of the kingdom of heaven(Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:21).

Seah.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄3 ephah,or 1 saton. Used to measure flour, grain, seed, and other various drygoods (e.g., 2Kings 7:1; 1Sam. 25:18).

LiquidVolume

Bath.Approximately 6 gallons, or 22.7 liters. Equivalent to 1 ephah, whichtypically was used for measurements of dry capacity. Used in themeasurement of water (1Kings 7:26), oil (1Kings 5:11),and wine (2Chron. 2:10; Isa. 5:10).

Batos.Approximately 8 gallons, or 30.3 liters. A Greek transliteration ofthe Hebrew word bath(see above). A measure of oil (Luke 16:6).

Hin.Approximately 4 quarts (1gallon, or 3.8 liters). Equivalent to1⁄6 bath and 12 logs. Used in the measurement of water (Ezek.4:11), oil (Ezek. 46:5), and wine (Num. 28:14).

Log.Approximately 1⁄3 quart, or 0.3 liter. Equivalent to 1⁄72bath and 1⁄12 hin. Mentioned five times in Scripture,specifically used to measure oil (Lev. 14:10–24).

Metretes.Approximately 10 gallons, or 37.8 liters. Used in the measurement ofwater at the wedding feast (John 2:6).

It is difficult to imagine a world without consistentmetrological systems. Society’s basic structures, from economyto law, require a uniform and accurate method for measuring time,distances, weights, volumes, and so on. In today’s world,technological advancements allow people to measure various aspects ofthe universe with incredible accuracy—from nanometers tolight-years, milligrams to kilograms.

Themetrological systems employed in biblical times span the sameconcepts as our own modern-day systems: weight, linear distance, andvolume or capacity. However, the systems of weights and measurementsemployed during the span of biblical times were not nearly asaccurate or uniform as the modern units employed today. Preexistingweight and measurement systems existed in the contextual surroundingsof both the OT and the NT authors and thus heavily influenced thesystems employed by the Israelite nation as well as the NT writers.There was great variance between the different standards usedmerchant to merchant (Gen. 23:16), city to city, region to region,time period to time period, even despite the commands to use honestscales and honest weights (Lev. 19:35–36; Deut. 25:13–15;Prov. 11:1; 16:11; 20:23; Ezek. 45:10).

Furthermore,inconsistencies and contradictions exist within the written recordsas well as between archaeological specimens. In addition, significantdifferences are found between preexilic and postexilic measurementsin the biblical texts, and an attempt at merging dry capacity andliquid volume measurements further complicated the issue. This is tobe expected, especially when we consider modern-dayinconsistencies—for example, 1 US liquid pint= 0.473liters, while 1 US dry pint= 0.550 liters. Thus, all modernequivalents given below are approximations, and even the bestestimates have a margin of error of + 5percent or more.

Weights

Weightsin biblical times were carried in a bag or a satchel (Deut. 25:13;Prov. 16:11; Mic. 6:11) and were stones, usually carved into variousanimal shapes for easy identification. Their side or flat bottom wasinscribed with the associated weight and unit of measurement.Thousands of historical artifacts, which differ by significantamounts, have been discovered by archaeologists and thus have greatlycomplicated the work of determining accurate modern-day equivalents.

Beka.Approximately 1⁄5 ounce, or 5.6 grams. Equivalent to 10 gerahsor ½ the sanctuary shekel (Exod. 38:26). Used to measuremetals and goods such as gold (Gen. 24:22).

Gerah.1⁄50 ounce, or 0.56 grams. Equivalent to 1⁄10 beka, 1⁄20shekel (Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25).

Litra.Approximately 12 ounces, or 340 grams. A Roman measure of weight.Used only twice in the NT (John 12:3; 19:39). The precursor to themodern British pound.

Mina.Approximately 1¼ pounds, or 0.56 kilograms. Equivalent to 50shekels. Used to weigh gold (1Kings 10:17; Ezra 2:69), silver(Neh. 7:71–72), and other goods. The prophet Ezekiel redefinedthe proper weight: “Theshekel is to consist of twentygerahs. Twenty shekels plus twenty-five shekels plus fifteen shekelsequal one mina” (Ezek. 45:12). Before this redefinition, therewere arguably 50 shekels per mina. In Jesus’ parable of theservants, he describes the master entrusting to his three servantsvarying amounts—10 minas, 5 minas, 1 mina—implying amonetary value (Luke 19:11–24), probably of either silver orgold. One mina was equivalent to approximately three months’wages for a laborer.

Pim.Approximately 1⁄3 ounce, or 9.3 grams. Equivalent to 2⁄3shekel. Referenced only once in the Scriptures (1Sam. 13:21).

Shekel.Approximately 2⁄5 ounce, or 11 grams. Equivalent toapproximately 2 bekas. The shekel is the basic unit of weightmeasurement in Israelite history, though its actual weight variedsignificantly at different historical points. Examples include the“royal shekel” (2Sam. 14:26), the “commonshekel” (2Kings 7:1), and the “sanctuary shekel,”which was equivalent to 20 gerahs (e.g., Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25;Num. 3:47). Because it was used to weigh out silver or gold, theshekel also functioned as a common monetary unit in the NT world.

Talent.Approximately 75 pounds, or 34 kilograms. Equivalent to approximately60 minas. Various metals were weighed using talents: gold (Exod.25:39; 37:24; 1Chron. 20:2), silver (Exod. 38:27; 1Kings20:39; 2Kings 5:22), and bronze (Exod. 38:29). This probably isderived from the weight of a load that a man could carry.

Table12. Biblical Weights and Measures and Their Modern Equivalents:

Weights

Beka– 10 geraahs; ½ shekel = 1/5 ounce = 5.6 grams

Gerah– 1/10 beka; 1/20 shekel = 1/50 ounce = 0.56 grams

Litra– 12 ounces = 340 grams

Mina– 50 shekels = 1 ¼ pounds = 0.56 kilograms

Pim– 2/3 shekel = 1/3 ounce = 9.3 grams

Shekel– 2 bekas; 20 gerahs = 2/5 ounce = 11 grams

Talent– 60 minas = 75 pounds = 34 kilograms

Linearmeasurements

Cubit– 6 handbreadths = 18 inches = 45.7 centimeters

Day’sjourney = 20-25 miles = 32-40 kilometerse

Fingerbreadth– ¼ handbreadth = ¾ inch = 1.9 centimeterse

Handbreadth– 1/6 cubit = 3 inches = 7.6 centimeters

Milion– 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers

Orguia– 1/100 stadion = 5 feet 11 inches = 1.8 meters

Reed/rod– 108 inches = 274 centimeters

Sabbathday’s journey – 2,000 cubits = ¾ mile = 1.2kilometers

Span– 3 handbreadths = 9 inches = 22.8 centimeters

Stadion– 100 orguiai = 607 feet = 185 meters

Capacity

Cab– 1 omer = ½ gallon = 1.9 liters

Choinix– ¼ gallon = 0.9 liters

Cor– 1 homer; 10 ephahs = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Ephah– 10 omers; 1/10 homer = 3/5 bushel; 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Homer– 10 ephahs; 1 cor = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Koros– 10 bushels; 95 gallons – 360 liters

Omer– 1/10 ephah; 1/100 homer = 2 quarts = 1.9 liters

Saton– 1 seah = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

Seah– 1/3 ephah; 1 saton = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

LiquidVolume

Bath– 1 ephah = 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Batos– 8 gallons = 30.3 liters

Hin– 1/6 bath; 12 logs = 1 gallon; 4 quarts = 3.8 liters

Log– 1/72 bath; 1/12 hin = 1/3 quart = 0.3 liters

Metretes– 10 gallons = 37.8 literes

LinearMeasurements

Linearmeasurements were based upon readily available natural measurementssuch as the distance between the elbow and the hand or between thethumb and the little finger. While convenient, this method ofmeasurement gave rise to significant inconsistencies.

Cubit.Approximately 18 inches, or 45.7 centimeters. Equivalent to 6handbreadths. The standard biblical measure of linear distance, asthe shekel is the standard measurement of weight. The distance fromthe elbow to the outstretched fingertip. Used to describe height,width, length (Exod. 25:10), distance (John 21:8), and depth (Gen.7:20). Use of the cubit is ancient. For simple and approximateconversion into modern units, divide the number of cubits in half formeters, then multiply the number of meters by 3 to arrive at feet.

1cubit = 2 spans = 6 handbreadths = 24 fingerbreadths

Day’sjourney.An approximate measure of distance equivalent to about 20–25miles, or 32–40 kilometers. Several passages reference a singleor multiple days’ journey as a description of the distancetraveled or the distance between two points: “a day’sjourney” (Num. 11:31; 1Kings 19:4), “a three-dayjourney” (Gen. 30:36; Exod. 3:18; 8:27; Jon. 3:3), “sevendays” (Gen. 31:23), and “eleven days” (Deut. 1:2).After visiting Jerusalem for Passover, Jesus’ parents journeyedfor a day (Luke 2:44) before realizing that he was not with them.

Fingerbreadth.The width of the finger, or ¼ of a handbreadth, approximately¾ inch, or 1.9 centimeters. The fingerbreadth was thebeginning building block of the biblical metrological system forlinear measurements. Used only once in the Scriptures, to describethe bronze pillars (Jer. 52:21).

Handbreadth.Approximately 3 inches, or 7.6 centimeters. Equivalent to 1/6 cubit,or four fingerbreadths. Probably the width at the base of the fourfingers. A short measure of length, thus compared to a human’sbrief life (Ps. 39:5). Also the width of the rim on the bread table(Exod. 25:25) and the thickness of the bronze Sea (1Kings7:26).

Milion.Translated “mile” in Matt. 5:41. Greek transliteration ofRoman measurement mille passuum, “a thousand paces.”

Orguia.Approximately 5 feet 11 inches, or 1.8 meters. Also translated as“fathom.” A Greek unit of measurement. Probably thedistance between outstretched fingertip to fingertip. Used to measurethe depth of water (Acts 27:28).

Reed/rod.Approximately 108 inches, or 274 centimeters. This is also a generalterm for a measuring device rather than a specific linear distance(Ezek. 40:3, 5; 42:16–19; Rev. 11:1; 21:15).

Sabbathday’s journey.Approximately ¾ mile, or 1.2 kilometers (Acts 1:12). About2,000 cubits.

Span.Approximately 9 inches, or 22.8 centimeters. Equivalent to threehandbreadths, and ½ cubit. The distance from outstretchedthumb tip to little-finger tip. The length and width of the priest’sbreastpiece (Exod. 28:16).

Stadion.Approximately 607 feet, or 185 meters. Equivalent to 100 orguiai.Used in the measurement of large distances (Matt. 14:24; Luke 24:13;John 6:19; 11:18; Rev. 14:20; 21:16).

LandArea

Seed.The size of a piece of land could also be measured on the basis ofhow much seed was required to plant that field (Lev. 27:16; 1Kings18:32).

Yoke.Fields and lands were measured using logical, available means. Inbiblical times, this meant the amount of land a pair of yoked animalscould plow in one day (1Sam. 14:14; Isa. 5:10).

Capacity

Cab.Approximately ½ gallon, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1 omer.Mentioned only once in the Scriptures, during the siege of Samaria(2Kings 6:25).

Choinix.Approximately ¼ gallon, or 0.9 liters. A Greek measurement,mentioned only once in Scripture (Rev. 6:6).

Cor.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equal to thehomer, and to 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularlyof flour and grains (1Kings 4:22; 1Kings 5:11; 2Chron.2:10; 27:5; Ezra 7:22). In the LXX, cor is also a measure of liquidvolume, particularly oil (1Kings 5:11; 2Chron. 2:10; Ezra45:14).

Ephah.Approximately 3⁄5 bushel (6 gallons, or 22.7 liters).Equivalent to 10 omers, or 1⁄10 homer. Used for measuring flourand grains (e.g., Exod. 29:40; Lev. 6:20). Isaiah prophesied a day ofreduced agricultural yield, when a homer of seed would produce onlyan ephah of grain (Isa. 5:10). The ephah was equal in size to thebath (Ezek. 45:11), which typically was used for liquid measurements.

Homer.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equivalent to1 cor, or 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularly ofvarious grains (Lev. 27:16; Isa. 5:10; Ezek. 45:11, 13–14; Hos.3:2). This is probably a natural measure of the load that a donkeycan carry, in the range of 90 kilograms. There may have existed adirect link between capacity and monetary value, given Lev. 27:16:“fifty shekels of silver to a homer of barley seed.” Alogical deduction of capacity and cost based on known equivalencesmight look something like this:

1homer = 1 mina; 1 ephah = 5 shekels; 1 omer = 1 beka

Koros.Approximately 10 bushels (95 gallons, or 360 liters). A Greek measureof grain (Luke 16:7).

Omer.Approximately 2 quarts, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄10ephah, 1⁄100 homer (Ezek. 45:11). Used by Israel in themeasurement and collection of manna in the wilderness (Exod.16:16–36) and thus roughly equivalent to a person’s dailyfood ration.

Saton.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1 seah. Themeasurement of flour in Jesus’ parable of the kingdom of heaven(Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:21).

Seah.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄3 ephah,or 1 saton. Used to measure flour, grain, seed, and other various drygoods (e.g., 2Kings 7:1; 1Sam. 25:18).

LiquidVolume

Bath.Approximately 6 gallons, or 22.7 liters. Equivalent to 1 ephah, whichtypically was used for measurements of dry capacity. Used in themeasurement of water (1Kings 7:26), oil (1Kings 5:11),and wine (2Chron. 2:10; Isa. 5:10).

Batos.Approximately 8 gallons, or 30.3 liters. A Greek transliteration ofthe Hebrew word bath(see above). A measure of oil (Luke 16:6).

Hin.Approximately 4 quarts (1gallon, or 3.8 liters). Equivalent to1⁄6 bath and 12 logs. Used in the measurement of water (Ezek.4:11), oil (Ezek. 46:5), and wine (Num. 28:14).

Log.Approximately 1⁄3 quart, or 0.3 liter. Equivalent to 1⁄72bath and 1⁄12 hin. Mentioned five times in Scripture,specifically used to measure oil (Lev. 14:10–24).

Metretes.Approximately 10 gallons, or 37.8 liters. Used in the measurement ofwater at the wedding feast (John 2:6).

The mountain where Moses met with God and received the lawand instructions for building the tabernacle. It is important to notethat Sinai is sometimes referred to as Horeb. Scholars who believethat the Pentateuch is composed of sources from different periods oftime suggest that the J and P sources used the name “Sinai”while “Horeb” is used by the E and D sources, but thatthe mountain is the same one. Sinai figures prominently in thebiblical narrative between Exod. 19 and Num. 10, while the Israelitesare camped around the mountain. During this time, Moses makes severaltrips up the mountain. He first ascends the mountain alone when theIsraelites initially camp around it (Exod. 19–23). Next, Mosesalong with Aaron and the elders go up the mountain, followed anothertime by Moses and Joshua (Exod. 24). Moses then ascends for fortydays and nights, at which time he receives the instructions for thetabernacle. This ascent is ruined for Moses when he descends themountain to find the people worshiping a golden calf (Exod. 32).Moses once again climbs the mountain and receives a reiteration ofthe law (Exod. 34). All of this culminates with the descent of Godfrom the top of the mountain to take up residence within the newtabernacle (Exod. 40).

Leviticusimplies that it is a continuation of the law that Moses received onthe mountain. Finally, the first ten chapters of Numbers describe theIsraelites moving away from Sinai and toward the promised land. Themountain also plays a significant role in the book of Deuteronomy,which looks back at the earlier narrative. Sinai is also the locationof Elijah’s sojourn after his supernatural encounter with Godon another mountain, Carmel (1Kings 19). Interestingly, in theElijah narrative the same physical elements of smoke, fire,earthquake, and wind are evidenced in the story, but God is foundonly in a small whisper. Because this is the place where Mosesreceives the law from God, a mountain often is seen as a symbol ofGod’s revelation (cf. Matt. 5:1–2; 17:1–2; Rev.21:10). In Galatians, Paul uses Sinai as a symbol or type of the oldcovenant.

Theexact location of the mountain cannot be determined with certainty.Complicating matters is the fact that the desert and the peninsula onwhich the mountains sit are both called “Sinai.”Furthermore, although some have speculated that the mountain must bea volcano, given the description of smoke coming from the mountainand the earthquakes (Exod. 19:16, 18), this suggestion is of littlespecific help because many of the mountains in this region at onetime were active volcanoes. Several locations for the mountain havebeen suggested. The traditional location is Jebel Musa, in thesouthern part of the peninsula. The Greek Orthodox monastery of SaintCatherine marks this location. This is also the site of the discoveryof the Codex Sinaiticus, one of the earliest and most complete Greekversions of the Bible. Although Jebel Musa is the tallest mountain inthe area, several other mountains in this vicinity have also beensuggested. Another possible location advocated by some scholars is inthe northern part of the peninsula near Kadesh Barnea. Much of thedebate about the site has to do with the amount of time it took theIsraelites to go from the location where the Red Sea was parted tothe mountain. The northern location favors a shorter travel time,while the southern location favors a much longer trip.

All numbers in the original languages of the Bible arewritten using words, not numerals. Neither the biblical Hebrew northe Koine Greek writing system had distinct written numeral forms torepresent numbers. Preexilic Hebrew inscriptions record numberswritten either with words or in Egyptian hieratic number glyphs.During the exile, exposure to Aramaic resulted in the adoption of theAramaic script to write Hebrew, but there are no clear indicationsthat an Aramaic number system (as reflected in, e.g., the Elephantineinscriptions) was adopted. Hebrew later emulated Greek in assigningto the letters of the alphabet numerical values and so employing themto record numbers, although the practice of assigning numericalvalues to glyphs is also attested in pre-Hellenistic times. InMesopotamia, for example, the practice of assigning numerical valuesto characters from their syllabic writing system seems to haveexisted at least as far back as the eighth century BC. The earliestevidence of this practice in Hebrew dates to no earlier than themiddle of the second century BC, when it was used on Hasmonean coins.

Thevalue and importance of numbers was widely recognized throughout theancient world. Sophisticated mathematical texts are attested in bothMesopotamia and Egypt, although no such texts have been discoveredoriginating in ancient Israel. The use of hieratic numbers inpreexilic Israel suggests that mathematical knowledge may have beenimported, particularly from Egypt. The Akkadian language adapted fromSumerian a hybrid sexagesimal number system, which used cuneiformsymbols to represent numbers. Numbers were written in paired glyphs,one representing the values from 1 to 9, the second representing themultiples of 10 up to 50. For example, 59 was written by combiningthe glyph for 50 with that for 9. Larger numbers were then composedof sets of these paired glyphs. The impact of the sex-a-ges-i-malsystem can still be seen in the division of hours and minutes intosixty parts. Most other Near Eastern cultures, including that ofancient Egypt and Israel, used a decimal system.

Thedecimal system was also used in the Greek-speaking world, and theGreek language, since before the NT era, had employed letters torepresent numbers. The use of archaic letters that had otherwisedisappeared from general usage by NT times gave the Greek alphabettwenty-seven letters, which provided the basis for representingranges 1–9, 10–90, 100–900. Numbers wererepresented by adding letters together, so that the order of letterswas unimportant.

WhenHebrew started using letters to represent numbers, a similar schemewas adopted, although it necessarily stopped at 400 because theHebrew alphabet has only twenty-two letters. For some, this suggeststhat Hebrew may have appropriated the system from Greek, but the samesequence of values in earlier counting indicates that the associationof values 1–9, 10–90, 100–900 with the letters ofthe alphabet was itself not a Greek innovation.

NumberSymbolism

Numbersoften are used with symbolic significance in the Bible. Particularlyprominent are the numbers 7 and 12, together with variations scaledby powers of 10. Other numbers occur frequently and also appear tohave some symbolic significance, including 4, 40, and 1,000. A noteof warning is pertinent, however, because there is a danger both offinding number symbolism where there is none and of overlooking thesymbolic significance of numbers where it is appropriate.

Perhapsthe most prominent symbolic association in the Bible occurs with thenumber seven. Broadly speaking, seven denotes completeness,perfection, or consummation. The number first appears in the creationaccount in association with the first Sabbath, in which it is tied tocompletion and rest. Linked to this are the working week, whichconcluded with a Sabbath, the sabbatical year for the land (Lev.25:2–7), the duration of the major feasts over seven days(e.g., Passover [cf. Lev. 23:6, 34; Ezek. 45:21]), even the number ofyears Jacob worked for Leah and then Rachel (Gen. 29:15–30).God’s promise of comprehensive vengeance upon those who harmCain is reflected in the use of seven (Gen. 4:15; cf. Pss. 12:6;79:12; Prov. 6:31; Isa. 30:26). The idea that seven representscompleteness can be seen in the seventy nations recorded in Gen. 10and in the description of Yahweh as having seven eyes (Zech. 4:10).In the NT, the symbolic use of seven is expanded: it is used by Jesusin explaining unlimited forgiveness (Matt. 18:21–22) and mostextensively by the author of Revelation, where reference is made toseven churches (1:4, 11, 20), spirits (1:4; 3:1; 5:6), goldenlampstands (1:12; 2:1), stars (1:16; 2:1), seals (5:5; 6:1), eyes(5:6), angels (8:2, 6; 15:6, 7, 8; 16:1; 17:1; 21:9), trumpets (8:2,6), thunderclaps (10:3, 4), crowns (12:3), heads (12:3; 13:1; 17:3,7, 9), plagues (15:6, 8; 21:9), golden bowls (15:7; 16:1; 17:1),mountains (17:9), and kings (17:10).

Arisingout of the observations relating to the symbolic use of the numberseven are the manner in which its significance also applied torelated numbers such as 7×7 =49 (cf. Lev.25:8–55) and 7×10 =70 (cf. Exod. 24:1,9; Jer. 25:12; 29:10; Dan. 9:2, 24; Luke 10:1–17).

Thenext most significant number with symbolic associations is twelve. Inthe OT, the primary association is with the tribes of Israel, andthis association later develops to encompass God’s people intheir entirety. It is likely that such an association is deliberatelymade in Jesus’ choice of twelve apostles.

Thenumber ten is also associated with the practice of tithing, which wascommon throughout the ancient Near East. The number ten alone doesnot have a clear symbolic usage, although when a power of ten (e.g.,1,000 or 10,000) is used, these can represent any vast or unnumberedquantity (see “Large Numbers” below). Ten is also used incombination with other symbolic values to express the same symbolicnotion emphatically; for example, 70 (7×10) or 77(7×10 +7) become emphatic affirmations ofcompleteness, perfection, or consummation (e.g., Gen. 4:24; Matt.18:22).

Thenumber four appears to have some symbolic significance, perhaps dueto the typical enumeration of the four cardinal directions,suggesting geographical or cosmological entirety (cf. Isa. 11:12;Jer. 49:36; Zech. 6:5). For example, four rivers leave Eden to waterthe entire land (Gen. 2:10–14).

Thenumber forty appears frequently in association with long periods ofendurance, such as Moses on the mountain (forty days [Exod. 24:18]),the time in the wilderness (forty years [Exod. 16:35]), Elijah’sjourney to Horeb (forty days [1Kings 19:8]), Jesus’ timein the wilderness (forty days/nights [Matt. 4:2; Mark 1:13; Luke4:2]), and his time with his disciples following the resurrection(forty days [Acts 1:3]).

LargeNumbers

Somescholars have argued that the large numbers in the OT present aparticular problem in several places. Based on the figures in Num. 1,for example, there were 603,550 men of fighting age among those inthe exodus, suggesting a total population of between one and threemillion (not counting livestock). Taken at face value, this numberpresents some difficulties: based on estimates of Egyptianpopulation, it represents a very significant proportion of the entirepopulation of that country; taken in conjunction with the number offirstborn recorded in Num. 3:43, it implies a very large averagefamily size; it seems difficult to reconcile with the claim that theseven nations in the land of Canaan were greater than Israel (Deut.4:38; 7:1; 9:1–2); and the logistics of moving that many peoplewould pose significant problems.

However,if the observation made by Pharaoh in Exod. 1:9, that the Hebrewswere more numerous than the Egyptians, was even approximatelyaccurate, then a population of between one and two million would beappropriate. Nonetheless, various attempts have been made to mitigatethe perceived difficulties by suggesting approaches that interpretthe text in ways that result in significantly smaller populationestimates for the Israelites.

Thelargest single-number word used in the OT is rebabah, which is usedto represent large values greater than ten thousand but otherwiseoften lacks precision and is better understood to refer to a vastunnumbered multitude (e.g., Pss. 3:6; 91:7; Song 5:10). Similarly,the number one thousand can be used rhetorically without demandingmathematical precision (e.g., 2Pet. 3:8, which should not beunderstood to provide a mathematical equation). It is this latternumber that appears in the difficult passages in Numbers. The bestsolution to the problems lies in the meaning of the Hebrew term inquestion, ’elep (“thousand”). Several scholars havesuggested that ’elep can also refer to a military unit or someother group (cf. Num. 1:16). Although the precise numbers in questionare debated according to varying understandings of the sizes of thegroups, the best solutions put the total number of Israelites in theexodus at around thirty thousand.

Gematria

Gematriais a system for calculating numerical values for words by assigningspecific values to the letters of an alphabet. As noted above, thepractice was used for legitimate numerical notation in Greek and, insome periods, in Hebrew. Letters were assigned values based on theirorder within the alphabet, the first nine letters assigned values1–9, the next nine assigned values 10–90, and thesubsequent letters assigned multiples of 100.

Althoughnumerology of various forms, and in particular gematria, has formedthe basis of many misguided attempts to discover hidden meaningswithin the biblical text, there appear to be explicit uses ofgematria in Rev. 13:18 and, some suggest, in John 21:11. If thenumber 666 is an actual example of gematria, no consensus has beenreached over the identity of the referent.

Mostof the other supposed examples of gematria within the pages of theBible are unconvincing, largely because the texts wherein suchexamples are found make good sense without resorting to obscure anduncertain interpretations, and partly because it runs counter to thenotion that God speaks to make his will known (e.g., Deut. 29:29).

The name “Phoenicia” probably comes from theGreek word phoinix, meaning “purple red.” This namederived from the famous purple red dye made from the murex snail thatwas produced in this region. The evidence shows that the Phoenicianswere primarily sea traders and artists.

Thegeographical and chronological boundaries for Phoenicia areimprecise, in part because the term “Phoenician” is notmentioned before Homer. In Homer the inhabitants of Sidon are called“Phoenicians,” but it is possible that the term may firstoccur in Mycenaean LinearB texts of the thirteenth century BC.Based on the written records, it is safe to assume that the heartlandof Phoenicia was along the coastal regions of modern-day Lebanon,extending to parts of Syria and Israel.

InOT times the territory occupied by the Phoenicians was called“Canaan” by the Israelites (Isa. 23:11), “Canaanite”(Heb. kena’an means “merchant”) being the nameapplied by the inhabitants to themselves (Gen. 10:18). It isimportant to note that this self-designation is found as late as thesecond century BC on coins minted in Beirut (“Laodicea, whichis in Canaan”). However, since Phoenicia was usually formed ofindependent city-states, it was common practice in all periods torefer to Phoenicia by the name of one of its principal cities(Gubla/Byblos, Tyre, Sidon).

Theorigin of the Phoenicians is obscure, but the earliest archaeologicalevidence for their presence comes from the “proto-Phoenician”finds at Byblos (ancient Gubla/Gebel [see Ezek. 27:9]) dated toaround 3000 BC. There is also plenty of evidence of trade andcorrespondence with Egypt during the Bronze Age periods.

Bythe time of David, Tyre was ruled by HiramI, whose reign begana golden age. Phoenicia became allied commercially with David (2Sam.5:11; 1Kings 5:1), and Hiram supplied Solomon with wood, stone,and craftsmen for the construction of the temple and Solomon’spalace (1Kings 5:1–12; 2Chron. 2:3–16). Shipsand navigators from Phoenicia were sent to assist the Judean fleetand to develop the port of Ezion Geber as a base for commerce(1Kings 9:27). Phoenicia, itself long influenced by Egyptianart, motifs, and methods, was now in a position to influenceIsraelite art.

Duringthe ninth and eighth centuries BC, the Phoenicians expanded into thewestern Mediterranean and founded colonies in Sardinia, Sicily, NorthAfrica, and Iberia. Alexander the Great captured Tyre in the fourthcentury BC, and the slaughter and destruction were extreme, but thecity recovered and, like Sidon, was still prosperous in Hellenisticand Roman times (see, e.g., Matt. 11:21–22; Acts 12:20).

Phoenicianreligion had a pantheon that differed from city to city and from oneage to the next. Nature and fertility deities predominated. Thefollowing were their chief deities: Baal, Astarte, Eshmun, Adonis,Melqart, and Tanit (more popular in North Africa). Baal, the chiefgod of Tyre and Sidon, was at times the leading rival to Yahwehworship in Israel (1Kings 16:29–22:18), and his consortwas Astarte.

ThePhoenicians spoke a Northwest Semitic language closely related toHebrew and Aramaic, and according to Herodotus, the Phoeniciansintroduced the alphabet to Greece. The Phoenician alphabetic scriptis similar to early Hebrew and Aramaic scripts from the firstmillennium BC.

Jacob laid his head upon a stone while he slept (Gen. 28:11).The use of a hard object as a pillow recalls carved wooden pillowsknown from Egypt. Michal used an article made of goat hair todisguise an idol as a sleeping person (1Sam. 19:13). Althoughin 1Sam. 19:13 some versions translate the Hebrew word kebir as“pillow,” it probably refers to a net over the head of asleeping person. Some older English translations use “pillow”to render a Hebrew word (mera’ashah) that probably referssimply to the place where the head is laid (1Sam. 26:7; 1Kings19:6). Other obscure passages perhaps refer to pillows (Prov. 7:16;Amos 3:12).

Jesusslept on a pillow or cushion in a boat (Mark 4:38). Elsewhere, theGospels state that he did not have a “place to lay his head”(Matt. 8:20; Luke 9:58). See also Bed.

It is difficult to imagine a world without consistentmetrological systems. Society’s basic structures, from economyto law, require a uniform and accurate method for measuring time,distances, weights, volumes, and so on. In today’s world,technological advancements allow people to measure various aspects ofthe universe with incredible accuracy—from nanometers tolight-years, milligrams to kilograms.

Themetrological systems employed in biblical times span the sameconcepts as our own modern-day systems: weight, linear distance, andvolume or capacity. However, the systems of weights and measurementsemployed during the span of biblical times were not nearly asaccurate or uniform as the modern units employed today. Preexistingweight and measurement systems existed in the contextual surroundingsof both the OT and the NT authors and thus heavily influenced thesystems employed by the Israelite nation as well as the NT writers.There was great variance between the different standards usedmerchant to merchant (Gen. 23:16), city to city, region to region,time period to time period, even despite the commands to use honestscales and honest weights (Lev. 19:35–36; Deut. 25:13–15;Prov. 11:1; 16:11; 20:23; Ezek. 45:10).

Furthermore,inconsistencies and contradictions exist within the written recordsas well as between archaeological specimens. In addition, significantdifferences are found between preexilic and postexilic measurementsin the biblical texts, and an attempt at merging dry capacity andliquid volume measurements further complicated the issue. This is tobe expected, especially when we consider modern-dayinconsistencies—for example, 1 US liquid pint= 0.473liters, while 1 US dry pint= 0.550 liters. Thus, all modernequivalents given below are approximations, and even the bestestimates have a margin of error of + 5percent or more.

Weights

Weightsin biblical times were carried in a bag or a satchel (Deut. 25:13;Prov. 16:11; Mic. 6:11) and were stones, usually carved into variousanimal shapes for easy identification. Their side or flat bottom wasinscribed with the associated weight and unit of measurement.Thousands of historical artifacts, which differ by significantamounts, have been discovered by archaeologists and thus have greatlycomplicated the work of determining accurate modern-day equivalents.

Beka.Approximately 1⁄5 ounce, or 5.6 grams. Equivalent to 10 gerahsor ½ the sanctuary shekel (Exod. 38:26). Used to measuremetals and goods such as gold (Gen. 24:22).

Gerah.1⁄50 ounce, or 0.56 grams. Equivalent to 1⁄10 beka, 1⁄20shekel (Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25).

Litra.Approximately 12 ounces, or 340 grams. A Roman measure of weight.Used only twice in the NT (John 12:3; 19:39). The precursor to themodern British pound.

Mina.Approximately 1¼ pounds, or 0.56 kilograms. Equivalent to 50shekels. Used to weigh gold (1Kings 10:17; Ezra 2:69), silver(Neh. 7:71–72), and other goods. The prophet Ezekiel redefinedthe proper weight: “Theshekel is to consist of twentygerahs. Twenty shekels plus twenty-five shekels plus fifteen shekelsequal one mina” (Ezek. 45:12). Before this redefinition, therewere arguably 50 shekels per mina. In Jesus’ parable of theservants, he describes the master entrusting to his three servantsvarying amounts—10 minas, 5 minas, 1 mina—implying amonetary value (Luke 19:11–24), probably of either silver orgold. One mina was equivalent to approximately three months’wages for a laborer.

Pim.Approximately 1⁄3 ounce, or 9.3 grams. Equivalent to 2⁄3shekel. Referenced only once in the Scriptures (1Sam. 13:21).

Shekel.Approximately 2⁄5 ounce, or 11 grams. Equivalent toapproximately 2 bekas. The shekel is the basic unit of weightmeasurement in Israelite history, though its actual weight variedsignificantly at different historical points. Examples include the“royal shekel” (2Sam. 14:26), the “commonshekel” (2Kings 7:1), and the “sanctuary shekel,”which was equivalent to 20 gerahs (e.g., Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25;Num. 3:47). Because it was used to weigh out silver or gold, theshekel also functioned as a common monetary unit in the NT world.

Talent.Approximately 75 pounds, or 34 kilograms. Equivalent to approximately60 minas. Various metals were weighed using talents: gold (Exod.25:39; 37:24; 1Chron. 20:2), silver (Exod. 38:27; 1Kings20:39; 2Kings 5:22), and bronze (Exod. 38:29). This probably isderived from the weight of a load that a man could carry.

Table12. Biblical Weights and Measures and Their Modern Equivalents:

Weights

Beka– 10 geraahs; ½ shekel = 1/5 ounce = 5.6 grams

Gerah– 1/10 beka; 1/20 shekel = 1/50 ounce = 0.56 grams

Litra– 12 ounces = 340 grams

Mina– 50 shekels = 1 ¼ pounds = 0.56 kilograms

Pim– 2/3 shekel = 1/3 ounce = 9.3 grams

Shekel– 2 bekas; 20 gerahs = 2/5 ounce = 11 grams

Talent– 60 minas = 75 pounds = 34 kilograms

Linearmeasurements

Cubit– 6 handbreadths = 18 inches = 45.7 centimeters

Day’sjourney = 20-25 miles = 32-40 kilometerse

Fingerbreadth– ¼ handbreadth = ¾ inch = 1.9 centimeterse

Handbreadth– 1/6 cubit = 3 inches = 7.6 centimeters

Milion– 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers

Orguia– 1/100 stadion = 5 feet 11 inches = 1.8 meters

Reed/rod– 108 inches = 274 centimeters

Sabbathday’s journey – 2,000 cubits = ¾ mile = 1.2kilometers

Span– 3 handbreadths = 9 inches = 22.8 centimeters

Stadion– 100 orguiai = 607 feet = 185 meters

Capacity

Cab– 1 omer = ½ gallon = 1.9 liters

Choinix– ¼ gallon = 0.9 liters

Cor– 1 homer; 10 ephahs = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Ephah– 10 omers; 1/10 homer = 3/5 bushel; 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Homer– 10 ephahs; 1 cor = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Koros– 10 bushels; 95 gallons – 360 liters

Omer– 1/10 ephah; 1/100 homer = 2 quarts = 1.9 liters

Saton– 1 seah = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

Seah– 1/3 ephah; 1 saton = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

LiquidVolume

Bath– 1 ephah = 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Batos– 8 gallons = 30.3 liters

Hin– 1/6 bath; 12 logs = 1 gallon; 4 quarts = 3.8 liters

Log– 1/72 bath; 1/12 hin = 1/3 quart = 0.3 liters

Metretes– 10 gallons = 37.8 literes

LinearMeasurements

Linearmeasurements were based upon readily available natural measurementssuch as the distance between the elbow and the hand or between thethumb and the little finger. While convenient, this method ofmeasurement gave rise to significant inconsistencies.

Cubit.Approximately 18 inches, or 45.7 centimeters. Equivalent to 6handbreadths. The standard biblical measure of linear distance, asthe shekel is the standard measurement of weight. The distance fromthe elbow to the outstretched fingertip. Used to describe height,width, length (Exod. 25:10), distance (John 21:8), and depth (Gen.7:20). Use of the cubit is ancient. For simple and approximateconversion into modern units, divide the number of cubits in half formeters, then multiply the number of meters by 3 to arrive at feet.

1cubit = 2 spans = 6 handbreadths = 24 fingerbreadths

Day’sjourney.An approximate measure of distance equivalent to about 20–25miles, or 32–40 kilometers. Several passages reference a singleor multiple days’ journey as a description of the distancetraveled or the distance between two points: “a day’sjourney” (Num. 11:31; 1Kings 19:4), “a three-dayjourney” (Gen. 30:36; Exod. 3:18; 8:27; Jon. 3:3), “sevendays” (Gen. 31:23), and “eleven days” (Deut. 1:2).After visiting Jerusalem for Passover, Jesus’ parents journeyedfor a day (Luke 2:44) before realizing that he was not with them.

Fingerbreadth.The width of the finger, or ¼ of a handbreadth, approximately¾ inch, or 1.9 centimeters. The fingerbreadth was thebeginning building block of the biblical metrological system forlinear measurements. Used only once in the Scriptures, to describethe bronze pillars (Jer. 52:21).

Handbreadth.Approximately 3 inches, or 7.6 centimeters. Equivalent to 1/6 cubit,or four fingerbreadths. Probably the width at the base of the fourfingers. A short measure of length, thus compared to a human’sbrief life (Ps. 39:5). Also the width of the rim on the bread table(Exod. 25:25) and the thickness of the bronze Sea (1Kings7:26).

Milion.Translated “mile” in Matt. 5:41. Greek transliteration ofRoman measurement mille passuum, “a thousand paces.”

Orguia.Approximately 5 feet 11 inches, or 1.8 meters. Also translated as“fathom.” A Greek unit of measurement. Probably thedistance between outstretched fingertip to fingertip. Used to measurethe depth of water (Acts 27:28).

Reed/rod.Approximately 108 inches, or 274 centimeters. This is also a generalterm for a measuring device rather than a specific linear distance(Ezek. 40:3, 5; 42:16–19; Rev. 11:1; 21:15).

Sabbathday’s journey.Approximately ¾ mile, or 1.2 kilometers (Acts 1:12). About2,000 cubits.

Span.Approximately 9 inches, or 22.8 centimeters. Equivalent to threehandbreadths, and ½ cubit. The distance from outstretchedthumb tip to little-finger tip. The length and width of the priest’sbreastpiece (Exod. 28:16).

Stadion.Approximately 607 feet, or 185 meters. Equivalent to 100 orguiai.Used in the measurement of large distances (Matt. 14:24; Luke 24:13;John 6:19; 11:18; Rev. 14:20; 21:16).

LandArea

Seed.The size of a piece of land could also be measured on the basis ofhow much seed was required to plant that field (Lev. 27:16; 1Kings18:32).

Yoke.Fields and lands were measured using logical, available means. Inbiblical times, this meant the amount of land a pair of yoked animalscould plow in one day (1Sam. 14:14; Isa. 5:10).

Capacity

Cab.Approximately ½ gallon, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1 omer.Mentioned only once in the Scriptures, during the siege of Samaria(2Kings 6:25).

Choinix.Approximately ¼ gallon, or 0.9 liters. A Greek measurement,mentioned only once in Scripture (Rev. 6:6).

Cor.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equal to thehomer, and to 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularlyof flour and grains (1Kings 4:22; 1Kings 5:11; 2Chron.2:10; 27:5; Ezra 7:22). In the LXX, cor is also a measure of liquidvolume, particularly oil (1Kings 5:11; 2Chron. 2:10; Ezra45:14).

Ephah.Approximately 3⁄5 bushel (6 gallons, or 22.7 liters).Equivalent to 10 omers, or 1⁄10 homer. Used for measuring flourand grains (e.g., Exod. 29:40; Lev. 6:20). Isaiah prophesied a day ofreduced agricultural yield, when a homer of seed would produce onlyan ephah of grain (Isa. 5:10). The ephah was equal in size to thebath (Ezek. 45:11), which typically was used for liquid measurements.

Homer.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equivalent to1 cor, or 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularly ofvarious grains (Lev. 27:16; Isa. 5:10; Ezek. 45:11, 13–14; Hos.3:2). This is probably a natural measure of the load that a donkeycan carry, in the range of 90 kilograms. There may have existed adirect link between capacity and monetary value, given Lev. 27:16:“fifty shekels of silver to a homer of barley seed.” Alogical deduction of capacity and cost based on known equivalencesmight look something like this:

1homer = 1 mina; 1 ephah = 5 shekels; 1 omer = 1 beka

Koros.Approximately 10 bushels (95 gallons, or 360 liters). A Greek measureof grain (Luke 16:7).

Omer.Approximately 2 quarts, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄10ephah, 1⁄100 homer (Ezek. 45:11). Used by Israel in themeasurement and collection of manna in the wilderness (Exod.16:16–36) and thus roughly equivalent to a person’s dailyfood ration.

Saton.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1 seah. Themeasurement of flour in Jesus’ parable of the kingdom of heaven(Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:21).

Seah.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄3 ephah,or 1 saton. Used to measure flour, grain, seed, and other various drygoods (e.g., 2Kings 7:1; 1Sam. 25:18).

LiquidVolume

Bath.Approximately 6 gallons, or 22.7 liters. Equivalent to 1 ephah, whichtypically was used for measurements of dry capacity. Used in themeasurement of water (1Kings 7:26), oil (1Kings 5:11),and wine (2Chron. 2:10; Isa. 5:10).

Batos.Approximately 8 gallons, or 30.3 liters. A Greek transliteration ofthe Hebrew word bath(see above). A measure of oil (Luke 16:6).

Hin.Approximately 4 quarts (1gallon, or 3.8 liters). Equivalent to1⁄6 bath and 12 logs. Used in the measurement of water (Ezek.4:11), oil (Ezek. 46:5), and wine (Num. 28:14).

Log.Approximately 1⁄3 quart, or 0.3 liter. Equivalent to 1⁄72bath and 1⁄12 hin. Mentioned five times in Scripture,specifically used to measure oil (Lev. 14:10–24).

Metretes.Approximately 10 gallons, or 37.8 liters. Used in the measurement ofwater at the wedding feast (John 2:6).

The concept of a remnant or a “remnant theology”runs throughout Scripture. Although appearing in a wide variety oftexts and contexts, the central idea of the remnant concept orremnant theology is that in the midst of seemingly total apostasy andthe consequential terrible judgment and/or destruction, God alwayshas a small, faithful group that he delivers and works through tobring blessing.

OldTestament

Earlyallusions to the idea of a remnant are introduced in the book ofGenesis. Noah and his family (Gen. 6–9) are the remnant that issaved during the flood, when all other people are destroyed injudgment. Likewise, in Gen. 45:6–7 Joseph declares to hisbrothers, “For two years now there has been famine in the land,and for the next five years there will be no plowing and reaping. ButGod sent me ahead of you to preserve for you a remnant on earth andto save your lives by a great deliverance.”

Theremnant theme surfaces in several other places in the OT. Forexample, when Elijah complains to God that he is the only faithfulone left, God corrects him by pointing out that he has maintained aremnant of seven thousand faithful ones in the midst of nationalapostasy (1Kings 19:10–18).

However,it is in the OT prophets that the remnant theme flowers into fullblossom. The Hebrew words for “remnant” (she’ar,she’erit)occur over one hundred times in the prophetic books. The prophetsproclaim that since Israel/Judah has broken the covenant and refusesto repent and turn back to God, judgment is coming. This judgmenttakes the form of terrible foreign invasions and destruction,followed by exile from the land. Thus, the northern kingdom, Israel,is destroyed and exiled by the Assyrians in 722 BC, and the southernkingdom, Judah, is destroyed and exiled by the Babylonians in 587/586BC. Yet the prophets also prophesy hope and restoration beyond thejudgment. They declare that many will be destroyed in the judgment,but not all. They prophesy that a remnant will survive, and that Godwill work through the remnant to bring blessings and restoration.Usually the remnant is identified as those who go into exile but wholikewise hope to return to the land. The reestablishment of theremnant is often connected with the inauguration of the messianicage.

NewTestament

Theremnant theme continues into the NT, but it is not nearly asprominent in the NT as it is in the OT prophets. The term “remnant”does not occur in the Gospels, although the idea is implied inseveral texts. Thus, in Matt. 7:13–14 Jesus states, “Forwide is the gate and broad is the road that leads to destruction, andmany enter through it. But small is the gate and narrow the road thatleads to life, and only a few find it.” Likewise, in Matt.22:14 Jesus summarizes his preceding parable by stating, “Manyare invited, but few are chosen.”

InRom. 11 Paul is much more explicit. Not only does he use the term“remnant,” but also in Rom. 11:2–5 he connects hisargument specifically to the remnant idea in 1Kings 19:18 (“Ihave reserved for myself seven thousand”). Paul is pointing outthe similarities between the apostasy in Israel in 1Kings 19and the parallel rejection of the Messiah by Israel during Paul’sday. In both cases the nation had rejected God’s word and hissalvation plan. But in both situations, even though the nation as awhole has rejected God, God maintains a faithful remnant. Paul alsounderscores that the remnant is established by God’s grace.Thus, in Rom. 11:5 Paul explains, “So too, at the present timethere is a remnant chosen by grace.” In the early church, thatremnant consisted of Jewish Christians like Paul himself. And to thedegree that the church as a whole inherited the promises to Israel,it too could be included in the category of remnant (see again Rom.11:11–24; cf. 1Pet. 2:5–10; Rev. 7; 14). Indeed,Paul hopes that the conversion of Gentiles to Christ might make hisJewish compatriots jealous so that they may “take back”their Messiah (in Rom. 11, cf. vv. 11–12 with vv. 25–36).In that case, national Israel would become the spiritual remnant forthe very first time in Israel’s history, because “allIsrael” would be saved. That is, national Israel and spiritualIsrael would be one.

Anotherway to grasp the idea of the remnant as it unfolds throughout theBible is to use an hourglass illustration (i.e., wide, narrow, wide).Thus, God had created the world to have fellowship with him, only tohave his creation spurn that offer. To rectify this problem, Godcalls Abraham out from paganism in order that he might make of him anew people, Israel, to worship God and declare him to the nations.Alas, however, Israel in time disobeys God’s law just as thenations of the world had disobeyed God by worshiping other gods. Butthe purpose of God is not thereby thwarted, for he raises up aremnant, a faithful few who remain true to Yahweh (e.g., Elijah andthe later returnees to Israel). However, by the end of the OT thehopes of Israel now rest upon one individual, the Messiah, who willturn the hearts of Jews back to God and who will convert the nationsof the earth to the one true God. As it turns out, then, Israel’srejection of God throughout the OT actually carries along the plan ofGod as it narrows its focus, culminating in the expectation of theone Messiah. But with the advent of Jesus Christ, the focus of Godnow widens, beginning with the apostles (the beginnings of theremnant in the NT), expanding to include the church (the replacementof Israel, however temporary that may be), and one day encompassingthe world (which will bring the revelation of God full circle).

The way the word “soul” is used in English doesnot align well with any single Hebrew or Greek word in the Bible.Rather, it reflects the accumulation of cultural and religiousunderstanding of the past. It is widely accepted that the biblicalview (both OT and NT) of humanity does not recognize sharp boundariesbetween body and soul (bipartite anthropology) or between body, soul,and spirit (tripartite). The human being is, according to biblicalteaching, a psychosomatic unity. In fact, nepesh, the Hebrew wordmost commonly translated as “soul,” probably should moreoften be translated as “self.” In several occurrences inthe OT, nepesh seems to mean “life” (Josh. 2:13; 1Kings19:4). Of course, given the Hellenistic background of the LXX and theNT, Greek psychēcould mean something akin to “soul” as it is commonlyused in English. But close examination shows that the NT use of theword is much closer to the OT conception than to its contemporaryHellenistic sense.

Nevertheless,our intuition leads us to make a conceptual distinction between thenonphysical abode of our “hearts and minds” and thephysical presence of our being. At the most basic level, it relatesto the question of death and its aftermath: when we die, can anythingremain apart from the physicality of our existence? The Greek answerto this is belief in the immortality of the soul; the biblical answeris resurrection of the body. Since the Bible maintains thepsychosomatic unity, purely nonphysical existence for the nonphysicalpart of humanity is not presented as a valid answer to thefundamental question of death. This is why the OT describes a deadperson as “sleeping with his fathers.” The NT concept ofsoul is clearly based on the OT counterpart; nevertheless, there isalso a clearer distinction between body and soul. An example isprovided by Jesus when he says, “Do not be afraid of those whokill the body but cannot kill the soul” (Matt. 10:28).

It is difficult to imagine a world without consistentmetrological systems. Society’s basic structures, from economyto law, require a uniform and accurate method for measuring time,distances, weights, volumes, and so on. In today’s world,technological advancements allow people to measure various aspects ofthe universe with incredible accuracy—from nanometers tolight-years, milligrams to kilograms.

Themetrological systems employed in biblical times span the sameconcepts as our own modern-day systems: weight, linear distance, andvolume or capacity. However, the systems of weights and measurementsemployed during the span of biblical times were not nearly asaccurate or uniform as the modern units employed today. Preexistingweight and measurement systems existed in the contextual surroundingsof both the OT and the NT authors and thus heavily influenced thesystems employed by the Israelite nation as well as the NT writers.There was great variance between the different standards usedmerchant to merchant (Gen. 23:16), city to city, region to region,time period to time period, even despite the commands to use honestscales and honest weights (Lev. 19:35–36; Deut. 25:13–15;Prov. 11:1; 16:11; 20:23; Ezek. 45:10).

Furthermore,inconsistencies and contradictions exist within the written recordsas well as between archaeological specimens. In addition, significantdifferences are found between preexilic and postexilic measurementsin the biblical texts, and an attempt at merging dry capacity andliquid volume measurements further complicated the issue. This is tobe expected, especially when we consider modern-dayinconsistencies—for example, 1 US liquid pint= 0.473liters, while 1 US dry pint= 0.550 liters. Thus, all modernequivalents given below are approximations, and even the bestestimates have a margin of error of + 5percent or more.

Weights

Weightsin biblical times were carried in a bag or a satchel (Deut. 25:13;Prov. 16:11; Mic. 6:11) and were stones, usually carved into variousanimal shapes for easy identification. Their side or flat bottom wasinscribed with the associated weight and unit of measurement.Thousands of historical artifacts, which differ by significantamounts, have been discovered by archaeologists and thus have greatlycomplicated the work of determining accurate modern-day equivalents.

Beka.Approximately 1⁄5 ounce, or 5.6 grams. Equivalent to 10 gerahsor ½ the sanctuary shekel (Exod. 38:26). Used to measuremetals and goods such as gold (Gen. 24:22).

Gerah.1⁄50 ounce, or 0.56 grams. Equivalent to 1⁄10 beka, 1⁄20shekel (Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25).

Litra.Approximately 12 ounces, or 340 grams. A Roman measure of weight.Used only twice in the NT (John 12:3; 19:39). The precursor to themodern British pound.

Mina.Approximately 1¼ pounds, or 0.56 kilograms. Equivalent to 50shekels. Used to weigh gold (1Kings 10:17; Ezra 2:69), silver(Neh. 7:71–72), and other goods. The prophet Ezekiel redefinedthe proper weight: “Theshekel is to consist of twentygerahs. Twenty shekels plus twenty-five shekels plus fifteen shekelsequal one mina” (Ezek. 45:12). Before this redefinition, therewere arguably 50 shekels per mina. In Jesus’ parable of theservants, he describes the master entrusting to his three servantsvarying amounts—10 minas, 5 minas, 1 mina—implying amonetary value (Luke 19:11–24), probably of either silver orgold. One mina was equivalent to approximately three months’wages for a laborer.

Pim.Approximately 1⁄3 ounce, or 9.3 grams. Equivalent to 2⁄3shekel. Referenced only once in the Scriptures (1Sam. 13:21).

Shekel.Approximately 2⁄5 ounce, or 11 grams. Equivalent toapproximately 2 bekas. The shekel is the basic unit of weightmeasurement in Israelite history, though its actual weight variedsignificantly at different historical points. Examples include the“royal shekel” (2Sam. 14:26), the “commonshekel” (2Kings 7:1), and the “sanctuary shekel,”which was equivalent to 20 gerahs (e.g., Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25;Num. 3:47). Because it was used to weigh out silver or gold, theshekel also functioned as a common monetary unit in the NT world.

Talent.Approximately 75 pounds, or 34 kilograms. Equivalent to approximately60 minas. Various metals were weighed using talents: gold (Exod.25:39; 37:24; 1Chron. 20:2), silver (Exod. 38:27; 1Kings20:39; 2Kings 5:22), and bronze (Exod. 38:29). This probably isderived from the weight of a load that a man could carry.

Table12. Biblical Weights and Measures and Their Modern Equivalents:

Weights

Beka– 10 geraahs; ½ shekel = 1/5 ounce = 5.6 grams

Gerah– 1/10 beka; 1/20 shekel = 1/50 ounce = 0.56 grams

Litra– 12 ounces = 340 grams

Mina– 50 shekels = 1 ¼ pounds = 0.56 kilograms

Pim– 2/3 shekel = 1/3 ounce = 9.3 grams

Shekel– 2 bekas; 20 gerahs = 2/5 ounce = 11 grams

Talent– 60 minas = 75 pounds = 34 kilograms

Linearmeasurements

Cubit– 6 handbreadths = 18 inches = 45.7 centimeters

Day’sjourney = 20-25 miles = 32-40 kilometerse

Fingerbreadth– ¼ handbreadth = ¾ inch = 1.9 centimeterse

Handbreadth– 1/6 cubit = 3 inches = 7.6 centimeters

Milion– 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers

Orguia– 1/100 stadion = 5 feet 11 inches = 1.8 meters

Reed/rod– 108 inches = 274 centimeters

Sabbathday’s journey – 2,000 cubits = ¾ mile = 1.2kilometers

Span– 3 handbreadths = 9 inches = 22.8 centimeters

Stadion– 100 orguiai = 607 feet = 185 meters

Capacity

Cab– 1 omer = ½ gallon = 1.9 liters

Choinix– ¼ gallon = 0.9 liters

Cor– 1 homer; 10 ephahs = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Ephah– 10 omers; 1/10 homer = 3/5 bushel; 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Homer– 10 ephahs; 1 cor = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Koros– 10 bushels; 95 gallons – 360 liters

Omer– 1/10 ephah; 1/100 homer = 2 quarts = 1.9 liters

Saton– 1 seah = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

Seah– 1/3 ephah; 1 saton = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

LiquidVolume

Bath– 1 ephah = 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Batos– 8 gallons = 30.3 liters

Hin– 1/6 bath; 12 logs = 1 gallon; 4 quarts = 3.8 liters

Log– 1/72 bath; 1/12 hin = 1/3 quart = 0.3 liters

Metretes– 10 gallons = 37.8 literes

LinearMeasurements

Linearmeasurements were based upon readily available natural measurementssuch as the distance between the elbow and the hand or between thethumb and the little finger. While convenient, this method ofmeasurement gave rise to significant inconsistencies.

Cubit.Approximately 18 inches, or 45.7 centimeters. Equivalent to 6handbreadths. The standard biblical measure of linear distance, asthe shekel is the standard measurement of weight. The distance fromthe elbow to the outstretched fingertip. Used to describe height,width, length (Exod. 25:10), distance (John 21:8), and depth (Gen.7:20). Use of the cubit is ancient. For simple and approximateconversion into modern units, divide the number of cubits in half formeters, then multiply the number of meters by 3 to arrive at feet.

1cubit = 2 spans = 6 handbreadths = 24 fingerbreadths

Day’sjourney.An approximate measure of distance equivalent to about 20–25miles, or 32–40 kilometers. Several passages reference a singleor multiple days’ journey as a description of the distancetraveled or the distance between two points: “a day’sjourney” (Num. 11:31; 1Kings 19:4), “a three-dayjourney” (Gen. 30:36; Exod. 3:18; 8:27; Jon. 3:3), “sevendays” (Gen. 31:23), and “eleven days” (Deut. 1:2).After visiting Jerusalem for Passover, Jesus’ parents journeyedfor a day (Luke 2:44) before realizing that he was not with them.

Fingerbreadth.The width of the finger, or ¼ of a handbreadth, approximately¾ inch, or 1.9 centimeters. The fingerbreadth was thebeginning building block of the biblical metrological system forlinear measurements. Used only once in the Scriptures, to describethe bronze pillars (Jer. 52:21).

Handbreadth.Approximately 3 inches, or 7.6 centimeters. Equivalent to 1/6 cubit,or four fingerbreadths. Probably the width at the base of the fourfingers. A short measure of length, thus compared to a human’sbrief life (Ps. 39:5). Also the width of the rim on the bread table(Exod. 25:25) and the thickness of the bronze Sea (1Kings7:26).

Milion.Translated “mile” in Matt. 5:41. Greek transliteration ofRoman measurement mille passuum, “a thousand paces.”

Orguia.Approximately 5 feet 11 inches, or 1.8 meters. Also translated as“fathom.” A Greek unit of measurement. Probably thedistance between outstretched fingertip to fingertip. Used to measurethe depth of water (Acts 27:28).

Reed/rod.Approximately 108 inches, or 274 centimeters. This is also a generalterm for a measuring device rather than a specific linear distance(Ezek. 40:3, 5; 42:16–19; Rev. 11:1; 21:15).

Sabbathday’s journey.Approximately ¾ mile, or 1.2 kilometers (Acts 1:12). About2,000 cubits.

Span.Approximately 9 inches, or 22.8 centimeters. Equivalent to threehandbreadths, and ½ cubit. The distance from outstretchedthumb tip to little-finger tip. The length and width of the priest’sbreastpiece (Exod. 28:16).

Stadion.Approximately 607 feet, or 185 meters. Equivalent to 100 orguiai.Used in the measurement of large distances (Matt. 14:24; Luke 24:13;John 6:19; 11:18; Rev. 14:20; 21:16).

LandArea

Seed.The size of a piece of land could also be measured on the basis ofhow much seed was required to plant that field (Lev. 27:16; 1Kings18:32).

Yoke.Fields and lands were measured using logical, available means. Inbiblical times, this meant the amount of land a pair of yoked animalscould plow in one day (1Sam. 14:14; Isa. 5:10).

Capacity

Cab.Approximately ½ gallon, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1 omer.Mentioned only once in the Scriptures, during the siege of Samaria(2Kings 6:25).

Choinix.Approximately ¼ gallon, or 0.9 liters. A Greek measurement,mentioned only once in Scripture (Rev. 6:6).

Cor.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equal to thehomer, and to 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularlyof flour and grains (1Kings 4:22; 1Kings 5:11; 2Chron.2:10; 27:5; Ezra 7:22). In the LXX, cor is also a measure of liquidvolume, particularly oil (1Kings 5:11; 2Chron. 2:10; Ezra45:14).

Ephah.Approximately 3⁄5 bushel (6 gallons, or 22.7 liters).Equivalent to 10 omers, or 1⁄10 homer. Used for measuring flourand grains (e.g., Exod. 29:40; Lev. 6:20). Isaiah prophesied a day ofreduced agricultural yield, when a homer of seed would produce onlyan ephah of grain (Isa. 5:10). The ephah was equal in size to thebath (Ezek. 45:11), which typically was used for liquid measurements.

Homer.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equivalent to1 cor, or 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularly ofvarious grains (Lev. 27:16; Isa. 5:10; Ezek. 45:11, 13–14; Hos.3:2). This is probably a natural measure of the load that a donkeycan carry, in the range of 90 kilograms. There may have existed adirect link between capacity and monetary value, given Lev. 27:16:“fifty shekels of silver to a homer of barley seed.” Alogical deduction of capacity and cost based on known equivalencesmight look something like this:

1homer = 1 mina; 1 ephah = 5 shekels; 1 omer = 1 beka

Koros.Approximately 10 bushels (95 gallons, or 360 liters). A Greek measureof grain (Luke 16:7).

Omer.Approximately 2 quarts, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄10ephah, 1⁄100 homer (Ezek. 45:11). Used by Israel in themeasurement and collection of manna in the wilderness (Exod.16:16–36) and thus roughly equivalent to a person’s dailyfood ration.

Saton.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1 seah. Themeasurement of flour in Jesus’ parable of the kingdom of heaven(Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:21).

Seah.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄3 ephah,or 1 saton. Used to measure flour, grain, seed, and other various drygoods (e.g., 2Kings 7:1; 1Sam. 25:18).

LiquidVolume

Bath.Approximately 6 gallons, or 22.7 liters. Equivalent to 1 ephah, whichtypically was used for measurements of dry capacity. Used in themeasurement of water (1Kings 7:26), oil (1Kings 5:11),and wine (2Chron. 2:10; Isa. 5:10).

Batos.Approximately 8 gallons, or 30.3 liters. A Greek transliteration ofthe Hebrew word bath(see above). A measure of oil (Luke 16:6).

Hin.Approximately 4 quarts (1gallon, or 3.8 liters). Equivalent to1⁄6 bath and 12 logs. Used in the measurement of water (Ezek.4:11), oil (Ezek. 46:5), and wine (Num. 28:14).

Log.Approximately 1⁄3 quart, or 0.3 liter. Equivalent to 1⁄72bath and 1⁄12 hin. Mentioned five times in Scripture,specifically used to measure oil (Lev. 14:10–24).

Metretes.Approximately 10 gallons, or 37.8 liters. Used in the measurement ofwater at the wedding feast (John 2:6).

It is difficult to imagine a world without consistentmetrological systems. Society’s basic structures, from economyto law, require a uniform and accurate method for measuring time,distances, weights, volumes, and so on. In today’s world,technological advancements allow people to measure various aspects ofthe universe with incredible accuracy—from nanometers tolight-years, milligrams to kilograms.

Themetrological systems employed in biblical times span the sameconcepts as our own modern-day systems: weight, linear distance, andvolume or capacity. However, the systems of weights and measurementsemployed during the span of biblical times were not nearly asaccurate or uniform as the modern units employed today. Preexistingweight and measurement systems existed in the contextual surroundingsof both the OT and the NT authors and thus heavily influenced thesystems employed by the Israelite nation as well as the NT writers.There was great variance between the different standards usedmerchant to merchant (Gen. 23:16), city to city, region to region,time period to time period, even despite the commands to use honestscales and honest weights (Lev. 19:35–36; Deut. 25:13–15;Prov. 11:1; 16:11; 20:23; Ezek. 45:10).

Furthermore,inconsistencies and contradictions exist within the written recordsas well as between archaeological specimens. In addition, significantdifferences are found between preexilic and postexilic measurementsin the biblical texts, and an attempt at merging dry capacity andliquid volume measurements further complicated the issue. This is tobe expected, especially when we consider modern-dayinconsistencies—for example, 1 US liquid pint= 0.473liters, while 1 US dry pint= 0.550 liters. Thus, all modernequivalents given below are approximations, and even the bestestimates have a margin of error of + 5percent or more.

Weights

Weightsin biblical times were carried in a bag or a satchel (Deut. 25:13;Prov. 16:11; Mic. 6:11) and were stones, usually carved into variousanimal shapes for easy identification. Their side or flat bottom wasinscribed with the associated weight and unit of measurement.Thousands of historical artifacts, which differ by significantamounts, have been discovered by archaeologists and thus have greatlycomplicated the work of determining accurate modern-day equivalents.

Beka.Approximately 1⁄5 ounce, or 5.6 grams. Equivalent to 10 gerahsor ½ the sanctuary shekel (Exod. 38:26). Used to measuremetals and goods such as gold (Gen. 24:22).

Gerah.1⁄50 ounce, or 0.56 grams. Equivalent to 1⁄10 beka, 1⁄20shekel (Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25).

Litra.Approximately 12 ounces, or 340 grams. A Roman measure of weight.Used only twice in the NT (John 12:3; 19:39). The precursor to themodern British pound.

Mina.Approximately 1¼ pounds, or 0.56 kilograms. Equivalent to 50shekels. Used to weigh gold (1Kings 10:17; Ezra 2:69), silver(Neh. 7:71–72), and other goods. The prophet Ezekiel redefinedthe proper weight: “Theshekel is to consist of twentygerahs. Twenty shekels plus twenty-five shekels plus fifteen shekelsequal one mina” (Ezek. 45:12). Before this redefinition, therewere arguably 50 shekels per mina. In Jesus’ parable of theservants, he describes the master entrusting to his three servantsvarying amounts—10 minas, 5 minas, 1 mina—implying amonetary value (Luke 19:11–24), probably of either silver orgold. One mina was equivalent to approximately three months’wages for a laborer.

Pim.Approximately 1⁄3 ounce, or 9.3 grams. Equivalent to 2⁄3shekel. Referenced only once in the Scriptures (1Sam. 13:21).

Shekel.Approximately 2⁄5 ounce, or 11 grams. Equivalent toapproximately 2 bekas. The shekel is the basic unit of weightmeasurement in Israelite history, though its actual weight variedsignificantly at different historical points. Examples include the“royal shekel” (2Sam. 14:26), the “commonshekel” (2Kings 7:1), and the “sanctuary shekel,”which was equivalent to 20 gerahs (e.g., Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25;Num. 3:47). Because it was used to weigh out silver or gold, theshekel also functioned as a common monetary unit in the NT world.

Talent.Approximately 75 pounds, or 34 kilograms. Equivalent to approximately60 minas. Various metals were weighed using talents: gold (Exod.25:39; 37:24; 1Chron. 20:2), silver (Exod. 38:27; 1Kings20:39; 2Kings 5:22), and bronze (Exod. 38:29). This probably isderived from the weight of a load that a man could carry.

Table12. Biblical Weights and Measures and Their Modern Equivalents:

Weights

Beka– 10 geraahs; ½ shekel = 1/5 ounce = 5.6 grams

Gerah– 1/10 beka; 1/20 shekel = 1/50 ounce = 0.56 grams

Litra– 12 ounces = 340 grams

Mina– 50 shekels = 1 ¼ pounds = 0.56 kilograms

Pim– 2/3 shekel = 1/3 ounce = 9.3 grams

Shekel– 2 bekas; 20 gerahs = 2/5 ounce = 11 grams

Talent– 60 minas = 75 pounds = 34 kilograms

Linearmeasurements

Cubit– 6 handbreadths = 18 inches = 45.7 centimeters

Day’sjourney = 20-25 miles = 32-40 kilometerse

Fingerbreadth– ¼ handbreadth = ¾ inch = 1.9 centimeterse

Handbreadth– 1/6 cubit = 3 inches = 7.6 centimeters

Milion– 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers

Orguia– 1/100 stadion = 5 feet 11 inches = 1.8 meters

Reed/rod– 108 inches = 274 centimeters

Sabbathday’s journey – 2,000 cubits = ¾ mile = 1.2kilometers

Span– 3 handbreadths = 9 inches = 22.8 centimeters

Stadion– 100 orguiai = 607 feet = 185 meters

Capacity

Cab– 1 omer = ½ gallon = 1.9 liters

Choinix– ¼ gallon = 0.9 liters

Cor– 1 homer; 10 ephahs = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Ephah– 10 omers; 1/10 homer = 3/5 bushel; 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Homer– 10 ephahs; 1 cor = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Koros– 10 bushels; 95 gallons – 360 liters

Omer– 1/10 ephah; 1/100 homer = 2 quarts = 1.9 liters

Saton– 1 seah = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

Seah– 1/3 ephah; 1 saton = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

LiquidVolume

Bath– 1 ephah = 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Batos– 8 gallons = 30.3 liters

Hin– 1/6 bath; 12 logs = 1 gallon; 4 quarts = 3.8 liters

Log– 1/72 bath; 1/12 hin = 1/3 quart = 0.3 liters

Metretes– 10 gallons = 37.8 literes

LinearMeasurements

Linearmeasurements were based upon readily available natural measurementssuch as the distance between the elbow and the hand or between thethumb and the little finger. While convenient, this method ofmeasurement gave rise to significant inconsistencies.

Cubit.Approximately 18 inches, or 45.7 centimeters. Equivalent to 6handbreadths. The standard biblical measure of linear distance, asthe shekel is the standard measurement of weight. The distance fromthe elbow to the outstretched fingertip. Used to describe height,width, length (Exod. 25:10), distance (John 21:8), and depth (Gen.7:20). Use of the cubit is ancient. For simple and approximateconversion into modern units, divide the number of cubits in half formeters, then multiply the number of meters by 3 to arrive at feet.

1cubit = 2 spans = 6 handbreadths = 24 fingerbreadths

Day’sjourney.An approximate measure of distance equivalent to about 20–25miles, or 32–40 kilometers. Several passages reference a singleor multiple days’ journey as a description of the distancetraveled or the distance between two points: “a day’sjourney” (Num. 11:31; 1Kings 19:4), “a three-dayjourney” (Gen. 30:36; Exod. 3:18; 8:27; Jon. 3:3), “sevendays” (Gen. 31:23), and “eleven days” (Deut. 1:2).After visiting Jerusalem for Passover, Jesus’ parents journeyedfor a day (Luke 2:44) before realizing that he was not with them.

Fingerbreadth.The width of the finger, or ¼ of a handbreadth, approximately¾ inch, or 1.9 centimeters. The fingerbreadth was thebeginning building block of the biblical metrological system forlinear measurements. Used only once in the Scriptures, to describethe bronze pillars (Jer. 52:21).

Handbreadth.Approximately 3 inches, or 7.6 centimeters. Equivalent to 1/6 cubit,or four fingerbreadths. Probably the width at the base of the fourfingers. A short measure of length, thus compared to a human’sbrief life (Ps. 39:5). Also the width of the rim on the bread table(Exod. 25:25) and the thickness of the bronze Sea (1Kings7:26).

Milion.Translated “mile” in Matt. 5:41. Greek transliteration ofRoman measurement mille passuum, “a thousand paces.”

Orguia.Approximately 5 feet 11 inches, or 1.8 meters. Also translated as“fathom.” A Greek unit of measurement. Probably thedistance between outstretched fingertip to fingertip. Used to measurethe depth of water (Acts 27:28).

Reed/rod.Approximately 108 inches, or 274 centimeters. This is also a generalterm for a measuring device rather than a specific linear distance(Ezek. 40:3, 5; 42:16–19; Rev. 11:1; 21:15).

Sabbathday’s journey.Approximately ¾ mile, or 1.2 kilometers (Acts 1:12). About2,000 cubits.

Span.Approximately 9 inches, or 22.8 centimeters. Equivalent to threehandbreadths, and ½ cubit. The distance from outstretchedthumb tip to little-finger tip. The length and width of the priest’sbreastpiece (Exod. 28:16).

Stadion.Approximately 607 feet, or 185 meters. Equivalent to 100 orguiai.Used in the measurement of large distances (Matt. 14:24; Luke 24:13;John 6:19; 11:18; Rev. 14:20; 21:16).

LandArea

Seed.The size of a piece of land could also be measured on the basis ofhow much seed was required to plant that field (Lev. 27:16; 1Kings18:32).

Yoke.Fields and lands were measured using logical, available means. Inbiblical times, this meant the amount of land a pair of yoked animalscould plow in one day (1Sam. 14:14; Isa. 5:10).

Capacity

Cab.Approximately ½ gallon, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1 omer.Mentioned only once in the Scriptures, during the siege of Samaria(2Kings 6:25).

Choinix.Approximately ¼ gallon, or 0.9 liters. A Greek measurement,mentioned only once in Scripture (Rev. 6:6).

Cor.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equal to thehomer, and to 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularlyof flour and grains (1Kings 4:22; 1Kings 5:11; 2Chron.2:10; 27:5; Ezra 7:22). In the LXX, cor is also a measure of liquidvolume, particularly oil (1Kings 5:11; 2Chron. 2:10; Ezra45:14).

Ephah.Approximately 3⁄5 bushel (6 gallons, or 22.7 liters).Equivalent to 10 omers, or 1⁄10 homer. Used for measuring flourand grains (e.g., Exod. 29:40; Lev. 6:20). Isaiah prophesied a day ofreduced agricultural yield, when a homer of seed would produce onlyan ephah of grain (Isa. 5:10). The ephah was equal in size to thebath (Ezek. 45:11), which typically was used for liquid measurements.

Homer.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equivalent to1 cor, or 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularly ofvarious grains (Lev. 27:16; Isa. 5:10; Ezek. 45:11, 13–14; Hos.3:2). This is probably a natural measure of the load that a donkeycan carry, in the range of 90 kilograms. There may have existed adirect link between capacity and monetary value, given Lev. 27:16:“fifty shekels of silver to a homer of barley seed.” Alogical deduction of capacity and cost based on known equivalencesmight look something like this:

1homer = 1 mina; 1 ephah = 5 shekels; 1 omer = 1 beka

Koros.Approximately 10 bushels (95 gallons, or 360 liters). A Greek measureof grain (Luke 16:7).

Omer.Approximately 2 quarts, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄10ephah, 1⁄100 homer (Ezek. 45:11). Used by Israel in themeasurement and collection of manna in the wilderness (Exod.16:16–36) and thus roughly equivalent to a person’s dailyfood ration.

Saton.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1 seah. Themeasurement of flour in Jesus’ parable of the kingdom of heaven(Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:21).

Seah.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄3 ephah,or 1 saton. Used to measure flour, grain, seed, and other various drygoods (e.g., 2Kings 7:1; 1Sam. 25:18).

LiquidVolume

Bath.Approximately 6 gallons, or 22.7 liters. Equivalent to 1 ephah, whichtypically was used for measurements of dry capacity. Used in themeasurement of water (1Kings 7:26), oil (1Kings 5:11),and wine (2Chron. 2:10; Isa. 5:10).

Batos.Approximately 8 gallons, or 30.3 liters. A Greek transliteration ofthe Hebrew word bath(see above). A measure of oil (Luke 16:6).

Hin.Approximately 4 quarts (1gallon, or 3.8 liters). Equivalent to1⁄6 bath and 12 logs. Used in the measurement of water (Ezek.4:11), oil (Ezek. 46:5), and wine (Num. 28:14).

Log.Approximately 1⁄3 quart, or 0.3 liter. Equivalent to 1⁄72bath and 1⁄12 hin. Mentioned five times in Scripture,specifically used to measure oil (Lev. 14:10–24).

Metretes.Approximately 10 gallons, or 37.8 liters. Used in the measurement ofwater at the wedding feast (John 2:6).